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A MANUAL 



FOR THE 



COUNTY HIGH SCHOOLS 
OF ALABAMA 



CONTAINING 

RULES AND REGULATIONS, COURSES OF STUDY, 
ADOPTED TEXTS, TREATMENT OF THE SEV- 
ERAL SUBJECTS IN THE CURRICULA. 



ISSUED BY 



THE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION, 

MONTGOMERY, ALABAMA, 

SEPT. 20, 1914 



Montgomery, Ala. 

BROWN PRINTING COMPANY, 

Printers and Binders, 

1914. 



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OCT 5 1114 






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TABLE OF CONTENTS 



Page 

INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT 5 

RULES AND REGULATIONS 9 

COURSES OF STUDY 18 

ADOPTED TEXTS 23 

ENGLISH: 36 

a. Grammar _ 36 

b. Composition 43 

c. Literature 58 

d. Spelling 61 

MATHEMATICS: 63 

a. Arithmetic 64 

b. Algebra 65 

c. Geometry 66 

SCIENCE: 68 

a. General Science 68 

b. Biology (Botany, Zoology, Physiology, and Sanitation). 72 

c. Physics 75 

d. Chemistry _ 78 

AGRICULTURE: 84 

a. Elementary Agriculture 84 

b. Horticulture 86 

c. Field Crops 88 

d. Poultry ...„ _ 89 

e. Dairying 90 

f. Animal Husbandry 92 



COUNTY HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL 



Page 
HOME AND SCHOOL GARDENING 94 

HISTORY: 101 

a. General history 105 

(1) Ancient history 106 

(2) Medieval history 109 

(3) Modern history 110 

b. English history Ill 

c. American history 113 

LATIN: 114 

a. Beginners' Latin 114 

b. Caesar 117 

c. Cicero 118 

FRENCH 119 

GERMAN 122 

VOCATIONAL ACCOUNTS 127 

ECONOMICS 130 

MECHANICAL DRAWING 132 

MANUAL TRAINING 136 

HOME ECONOMICS: 140 

a. Domestic Science 140 

b. Domestic Art 147 



INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT 



y^^» HE improvement of our county high schools involves the 
^} consideration of the pupil, the course of' study, the 
teacher, and the organization for properly relating and 
earning on the work. It is patent that a course of 
study which meets the needs of pupils today must offer prepa- 
ration not merely for higher institutions of learning, but for 
successful living as well. The new course of study and the 
subsequent adoption of textbooks at a considerable reduction 
in prices, may justly be expected to increase the attendance in 
our secondary schools, and has made the preparation of a 
new manual an absolute necessity. 

In going about this work of preparation, I have tried to 
keep in mind those whose formal education will be limited to 
the high school and who during this period must make all pos- 
sible preparation for successful service in the various fields of 
practical life. This has meant that vocational training must 
have a place along with the traditional subjects in the high 
school course, and while I would not disparage the value of 
the time-honored subjects which are recognized as both intrin- 
sic and disciplinary, I feel that no apology whatever is needed 
for breaking away from the confines of the past in the effort 
to make the high school work thoroughly consonant with the 
actual environment, the practical needs, and the social activi- 
ties of the community. 

I have thought it best to assign each subject to a member 
of the faculty of a higher institution of learning and a prin- 
cipal or teacher in a secondary school, with the request that 
each should treat the subject from his own viewpoint, and 
then collaborate their papers, believing that by so doing it 
would be feasible to simplify and modernize the course of 
study for our high schools without making the work too aca- 
demic on the one hand or too independent on the other. After 
carefully examining the work that has been done and is pre- 
sented herein, there can be no doubt that helps have been 
prepared definite in character, flexible eriough to meet local 



COUNTY HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL 



conditions, sufficient in detail for beginning high school teach- 
ers, and ample in scholarship for the most experienced teacher. 
Considerable emphasis has been placed upon original and 
independent work in the laboratory, in the field and in the 
library, looking- continually toward the practical application of 
all subjects — even those of other days, to present-day needs 
and opportunities. 

In furtherance of the spirit that has been implicit both in the 
conception and the preparation of this manual, it is confidently 
expected that the faculties of all the county high schools in 
the State will give themselves largely to extension work in 
behalf of the rural schools. A number of our county high 
schools have had sessions on Saturday and closed their doors 
on Monday in order that the teachers might visit rural schools 
in the county while in actual session, thereby rendering con- 
crete assistance at the most opportune time and in the most 
helpful way. 

To those who look out on Alabama's needs with any con- 
structive policy for betterment. Community Organization 
looms large as the most hopeful avenue of relief. The individ- 
ual community, however, will make slow, if any, progress 
without intelligent direction and cooperation. Each rural 
school is the common property of the community and the only 
agency that can lay claim to the undivided love and support of 
its members. Rural teachers must learn from the attitude and 
service of county high school teachers that they have unfailing 
friends who know and will to help them in this work of social 
and community uplift. We may be sure that rural teachers 
can never be taught to believe it so long as those who work in 
county high schools display an aloofness and a narrowness 
which limit their activity to the walls of the schoolroom or the 
boundaries of the town in which the high school may be lo- 
cated. 

The high school is the property of the county, — of the entire 
county, and no high school principal or teacher has any con- 
ception of the call to service which comes to him by virtue of 
his position, unless he is willing to give his time, his effort, and 
his skill to the assistance of the humblest school in the remotest 
part of his county insofar as he may do so without neglecting 
his immediate duties in the high school. That the true spirit 
of service which will inspire every high school teacher in 



INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT 



Alabama to lay himself out in the unselfish task of bringing 
help and direction to the entire county, may grip our minds and 
wills with irrepressible power for the work we can and ought 
to do, is the ideal that I would have set up for our guidance 
in the work. 

To the many friends who have assisted me in preparing this 
manual, I hereby acknowledge the deep obligation I owe. If, 
perchance, the fine spirit and skill which have been shown in 
the preparation of these articles shall find their counterparts 
and expression in the use and interpretation that is made of 
them, there can be no doubt that every school and every com- 
munity in this commonwealth will glow with a new enthusiasm 
that will permeate the State to its uttermost bounds. 




Superintendent of Education. 



RULES AND REGULATIONS 

ADOPTED BY 

THE HIGH SCHOOL COMMISSION FOR THE GOV- 
ERNMENT OF THE COUNTY HIGH SCHOOLS 
OF ALABAMA. 



1. The county high school teachers, including the principal, 
shall be elected by the High School Commission and their 
salaries shall be fixed by the Commission. The county board 
of education shall have the right to nominate the principal of 
the county high school and the principal of the county school 
shall have the right to nominate the teachers for the count;. 
high school. The county board of education shall recommend 
the salaries to be paid the teachers, including the principal, but 
if the nominations and recommendations so made do not meet 
the approval of the High School Commission, said commission 
shall act independently of such nominations and recommenda- 
tions, either or both. 

2. The teachers of the count} - high school shall consist of 
a principal and two or more assistants. Provided, that no 
assistant in any county high school shall be elected to the prin- 
cipalship of any county high school in which he may have 
taught for any time during the twelve months immediately 
preceding the date of any election, and provided further, that 
no person living in a town or community in which a county 
high school is located shall be eligible for election to a position 
as assistant in that particular high school. 

3. The principal shall be employed for twelve calendar 
months beginning July 1st and ending June 30th of the fol- 
lowing year. He shall be paid by the calendar month and shall 
furnish a bond of $500.00 in a reputable bonding company 
within thirty days from the date of his election. Said bond 
must be approved by and filed in the office of the judge of pro- 
bate of the county in which the high school is located, and a 
certified copy of said bond must be filed in the office of the 
Superintendent of Education at [Montgomery (the expense of 
this bond to be a charge to the county high school). 



10 COUNTY HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL 



4. The principal shall keep a matriculation book, adopted 
by the High School Commission, in which shall be placed the 
names of the pupils as they matriculate, giving the full name, 
home address, age, and the name and address of the parent, 
together with other desired information. 

5. The teacher shall keep an accurate record of the recita- 
tions and conduct of the pupils, and at the end of each term 
make a general report of each pupil to the principal, who shall 
place this report on a general record book which shall be well 
bound and kept for future reference. 

6. It shall be the duty of the principal on June 30th of each 
year to make an annual report on blanks furnished by the 
Department of Education. This report shall be made in dupli- 
cate, one copy being sent to the county superintendent and the 
other to the State Superintendent at Montgomery. It shall 
also be the duty of the principal to make reports from time to 
time when called for by the Department of Education. 

7. It shall be the duty of the principal and assistants in 
each county high school to follow faithfully the course of study 
prescribed by the Superintendent of Education, in accordance 
with section. 1866 of the Code. 

This course of study shall be a four year course and shall 
be based on an elementary course of seven grades or years. 

8. If the county board of education deems it expedient to 
allow the seventh grade to be taught in the county high school 
building as a preparatory grade to the regular high school 
course, as outlined by the High School Commission, such may 
be done, provided all teachers of this grade are elected and 
their salaries fixed in the same manner as the county high 
school teachers, and the necessary funds required to main- 
tain this grade, in the way of salaries and incidentals, are 
provided by the county board of education and other local 
authorities ; and provided further, the teachers and pupils of 
this grade shall be under the direct supervision of the principal 
and governed in accordance with the rules and regulations 
made by the High School Commission. 

9. The county high school shall begin its annual session at 
such date as may be fixed by the county board of education, 
provided that the date of opening be not later than the third 
Monday in September. 



RULES AND REGULATIONS 11 

10. The session of the county high schools shall be nine 
scholastic months (thirty-six weeks). The session is divided 
into two terms of four and one-half months each, and at the 
end of each term a general written examination shall be given 
to the pupils on the branches studied during the preceding 
term. 

11. Applicants for admission to a county high school must 
present an elementary seventh grade certificate or take a writ- 
ten examination covering the elementary course of study and 
average not less than 60% on each subject. These papers 
must be filed for at least six months in the office of the principal 
of the county high school, provided that mature young men 
and young women not under 17 years of age and capable of 
doing efficient secondary work may be admitted without writ- 
ten examinations. 

12. During the vacation period the principal shall canvass 
the county in the interest of the county high school, or per- 
form any other school work that may be assigned to him by 
the High School Commission. 

13. A pupil living*in any county may attend the high school 
in another county without any additional charges for tuition, 
etc., but every pupil in the county high school must present to 
the principal his receipt at the beginning of each term of the 
session showing that an incidental fee of $2.50 has been paid 
to the local treasurer of the high school which he is to attend. 

14. Every county high school must have a treasurer who 
shall be elected as the county high school principal is elected 
and who shall reside in the place where the school is located. 
He shall be elected for a term of three years and shall be re- 
quired to make a bond of three thousand dollars in a repu- 
table surety company ; said bond must be approved by and filed 
in the office of the judge of probate of the county in which the 
high school is located, and a certified copy of said bond must 
be filed in the office of the Department of Education at Mont- 
gomery. The treasurer shall keep in a well bound book accu- 
rate accounts of all of his transactions and shall make such 
reports as may be required of him by the High School Com- 
mission. He shall keep an accurate account of receipts and dis- 
bursements of all moneys stating from what source they came 
and how disbursed, giving receipts and taking proper vouchers. 



COUNTY HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL 



15. On the last day of each month the principal of the county 
high school shall deliver to the county high school treasurer 
a payroll in duplicate showing the amount due each teacher, 
janitor, and any other persons who have legitimate accounts 
against the high school. With the exception of the teachers 
and janitor, all persons shall present to the principal an item- 
ized statement of the accounts against the school, in duplicate, 
before the principal shall he required to place the same on a 
monthly payroll. The county high school principal shall make 
(nit the monthly payroll in duplicate and shall he required to 
■make the proper affidavit on the back of each payroll before 
delivering it to the count)- high school treasurer. 

16. The county high school treasurer must pay every item 
with a hank check and place the proper check number in the 
"Check Number" column of poth payrolls furnished him each 
month by the principal. lie must make a general report of his 
receipts and disbursements on the blank form at the bottom 
of each monthly payroll, and after properly making the affi- 
davit at the bottom of the payroll sheet he must forward one 
of the payrolls to the State Superintendent of Education at 
Montgomery so that it will reach the office within ten days 
after the payroll is submitted to the treasurer by the principal. 
The other payroll shall be kept on file in the office of the treas- 
urer and in it shall be placed the cancelled checks paying the 
various items when these checks are returned to the treasurer 

17. The treasurer must make an annual financial report in 
duplicate on or before July 30th for the year ending June 30th 
immediately preceding. One of the reports shall be filed with 
the county superintendent and the other with the State Super- 
intendent of Education at Montgomery. 

IS. The treasurer shall be paid no salary for his service-, 
but the premium on the surety bond required of him and any 
incidental expenses connected with his official duties must be 
paid out of any funds belonging to the high school. Accounts 
covering such items shall be furnished the county high school 
principal in accordance with Rule 13 and shall be paid in the 
tegular way. 

1!). The quarterly State appropriation of $750.00 shall be 
made payable to the order of the high school treasurer and 
shall be drawn on Jul}' I, ( )ctober 1, January 1, and April 1, 
of each year. The requisition for this appropriation shall be 



RULES AND REGULATIONS 13 



made by the high school treasurer and sent to the State Super- 
intendent in ample time for it to reach him each quarter before 
the dates mentioned. It shall be the duty of the State Superin- 
tendent to receipt the State Auditor for the warrant and to 
transmit it to the count)' high school treasurer. 

20. Examinations must be held at the close of each term of 
four and one-half months by the high school teachers and at 
the close of the session a certificate shall be issued by the prin- 
cipal to each pupil who passes a satisfactory examination 
stating that such pupil has finished the work of a designated 
year and this certificate shall entitle the pupil to enter upon 
the work of the year next after that so designated in any county 
hi >h school in the State. 

21. In order to pass a satisfactory examination on any 
branch in the county high school, it is necessary for the pupil 
to make an average of not less than 65% during the first schi »< >1 
\ear and not less than 70% on each branch during each and 
any year thereafter. This average shall be secured by aver- 
aging the grade made on the final examination with the daily 
recitation grades given, the final examination counting one-half 
and the daily recitations one-half. All examination papers 
shall be held for reference until January 1st of the succeeding 
year. 

22. The county high school teachers shall hold teachers' 
meetings twice each month of the scholastic year, at which the 
teachers shall consider such matters as may tend to promote 
the progress of the students and the welfare of the school, 
including the methods of teaching the various high school 
subjects. Some professional book prescribed by the State 
Superintendent of Education shall also be studied uniformly 
by the faculties of the several county high schools and a por- 
tion of the regular teachers' meeting period shall be given to 
the discussion of topics taken from this book. 

2.°). The High School- Commission shall appoint Inspectors, 
who shall visit the various county high schools of the State, 
and after carefullv inspecting them shall make a written re- 
port to the Secretary of the High School Commission. 

24. The principal of each county high school is hereby au- 
thorized to make such rules and regulations as may be neces- 
sary to successfully control and discipline the school, provided 



14 COUNTY HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL 



such rules and regulations shall in no way conflict with the 
rules and regulations made by the High School Commission. 

25. It shall be the duty of the county high school treasurer 
to see that the county high school property is properly insured 
at all times. The building and equipment should be insured 
for their full value, and the premiums to cover the insurance 
should be paid in the regular way on a monthly pay roll out 
of any county high school funds. The insurance policies shall 
be made payable to the High School Commission of Alabama 
and the county high school treasurer shall be the custodian of 
the policies. 

26. Certificates of graduation shall be issued to all pupils 
who complete, in a satisfactory manner, the prescribed course 
of study for the county high schools. The certificates must 
be purchased from the Marshall & Bruce Company, of Nash- 
ville, Tennessee, as a contract has been made with this company 
by the High School Commission to furnish these certificates 
at a minimum cost. The certificates must be signed by the 
State Superintendent of Education, the County Superintendent 
and the principal of the county high school. 

27. The principal of each school shall keep a proper account 
of all financial obligations of the school, listing each individual 
or firm together with the amount due at the time the obligation 
is incurred, in such a way as to show at any time the actual 
and total outstanding indebtedness of the school. And any 
account not so included in the schedule of indebtedness shall 
not be a charge to the school but to the principal who shall be 
liable on his official bond therefor. 



INSTRUCTIONS TO THE COUNTY HIGH SCHOOL 

PRINCIPAL AND COUNTY HIGH SCHOOL 

TREASURER 



THE PRINCIPAL 

1. The principal should study the rules and regulations gov- 
erning" the county high schools and comply with them in detail. 

2. The county high school pay roll in duplicate should be 
made out by the principal on the last day of each month in 
the year, and the pay roll should be dated the last day of the 
calendar month for which it is made. 

3. The principal is paid by the calendar month and his term 
of service begins July 1st of each year. The assistants are 
paid by the scholastic month and their terms begin at the 
opening of the school term. 

4. Opposite the name of each assistant in the county high 
school between the words "Salary" and "Month," the words 
"First," "Second," "Third," '"Fourth," "Fifth," "Sixth," "Sev- 
enth," "Eighth," and "Ninth," should be used in designating 
the months for which the assistant is paid during the school 
session. 

5. The janitor should be appointed by the principal and he 
may be paid by the scholastic month or by the calendar month. 

(). The principal shall make a requisition on the county high 
school treasurer before making any purchase or expenditure 
for his school. This requisition shall state specifically the 
purchases or expenditures which he desires to make during 
the month and shall give the amount of each. 

7. The regular form of requisition book prepared by the 
State Superintendent shall be used and each requisition must 
be made in duplicate and both forms must be approved by the 
county high school treasurer. The original shall be filed by 
the treasurer and the duplicate approved by him shall be re- 
turned to the principal. 

8. The requisition shall cover every item of expense which 
shall appear on the pay roll for each month except the sala- 
ries of the principal, teachers and janitor. Any principal 
who incurs any expense or makes any purchase without mak- 
ing a requisition to cover the same and having it approved by 



16 COUNTY HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL 

the treasurer shall he personally liable for the account, should 
the high school treasurer decline to approve said purchase on 
the requisition presented for the following month. 

9. The principal of each school shall keep a proper account 
of all financial obligations of the school, listing each individual 
or firm together with the amount due at the time the obliga- 
tion is incurred, in such a way as to show at any time the actual 
and total outstanding indebtedness of the school. And any 
account not so included in the schedule of indebtedness, shall 
not be a charge to the school but to the principal who shall be 
liable on his official bond therefor. 

10. If the principal desires to reimburse himself for inci- 
dentals paid by him, he should place his name on the pay roll 
for the amount and an itemized statement of the incidental 
account should be attached to the pay roll on file in the office 
of the high school treasurer. 

11. When an account against the school is to be paid, the 
name of the party should be placed on the pay roll for the 
amount and an itemized statement of the account should be 
attached to the pay roll. The principal should make opposite 
the name of each party rendering the account, a general state- 
ment telling the character of the claim. 

12. Each pay roll must be totalized and the total should be 
placed on the bottom line of the pav roll. 

13. After properly making out the pay '"oil in duplicate 
and making the necessary affidavit on each, the principal 
should deliver the pay rolls to the county high school treas- 
urer. 

THE TREASURER 

1. The treasurer should read carefully the rules and regu- 
lations governing the county high school and comply with 
them in detail, seeing that each payment is a legal one. 

'L All county high school funds, including the State appro- 
priation, town and county appropriations, matriculation, inci- 
dental fees, etc., must be placed in the hands of the county 
high school treasurer. 

3. The treasurer should pay out no high school funds for 
any item until the item has been placed on the regular monthly 
pay roll and the pay roll has been properly sworn to by the 
principal. 



INSTRUCTIONS TO TREASURER 17 



4. All high school funds should be kept by the treasurer in 
a local bank or in the nearest if there is no local bank. 

5. All items appearing on the pay roll should be paid by 
check and each check should be numbered, and the number of 
the check should be placed opposite the amount in "Check 
No." column. 

6. Every county high school treasurer should have a well 
bound ledger record book, and he should copy each monthly 
pay roll in this book showing each item as it appears on the 
pay roll. He should carefully file each monthly pay roll. 
Every official letter received by the treasurer, and, if prac- 
ticable, a copy of every official letter written by him, should 
be filed for future reference. 

7. Some time between the 20th and 30th of each month, the 
treasurer should have his bank book balanced, and his bank 
account and school account in the ledger book kept by him, 
should be balanced at the same time. Checks returned by the 
bank should be filed in the proper pay roll and these cancelled 
checks will answer as vouchers. 

S. The State Auditor's warrant for $750.00 is sent at the 
beginning of each quarter and is usable only for meeting lia- 
bilities which are made during and after that particular quar- 
ter. Deficits which appear at any time must be made up lo- 
cally in some other way than that of waiting for the receipt of 
the State's quarterly payment. In other words, these schools 
must be kept out of debt. 

i». The treasurer shall make a general report of his receipts 
and disbursements on the blank form at the bottom of each 
monthly pay roll and after properly making the affidavit at the 
bottom of the pay roll he must forward one of the pay rolls 
to the State Superintendent of Education at Montgomery so 
that it will reach the office within ten days after the pay roll 
is submitted to the treasurer by the principal. 

10. It shall be the duty of the county high school treasurer 
to see that the county high school property is properly insured 
at all times. The building and equipment should be insured 
for their FULL VALUE and the premiums to cover the insur- 
ance should be paid in the regular way on the monthly pay 
roll out of any county high school funds in the treasury. All 
insurance policies must be made payable to the high school 
commission, and the treasurer shall be the custodian of the 
policies. 



COURSES OF STUDY FOR THE COUNTY HIGH 
SCHOOLS OF ALABAMA 

(Based on elementary course of seven grades or years.) 

(For schools with three teachers.) 

FIRST YEAR COURSE A Hours per Week 

English Grammar 5 

Composition 

Classics 

Spelling 
Mathematics Arithmetic — First Semester (5) 5 

Algebra — Second Semester (5) 
Science - Agriculture — First Semester (5) 5 

General Science — 2nd Semester (5) 

History General History 3 

Drawing _Geometrical and Linear Drawing 2 

Vocational Manual Training (Boys) (2) 2 

Cooking (Girls) (2) 

Home and School Gardening 

Total 22 

SECOND YEAR 

English - ....Composition and Rhetoric i 

Classics 

Spelling 

Mathematics Algebra 5 

Science Horticulture — First Semester ( 5 ) 5 

Botany — Second Semester (5) 

History English History _ 3 

Vocational Domestic Science (Girls) (2) 2 

Woodworking (Boys) (2) 

Vocational Accounts 2 

School Gardening 

Total 22 

THIRD YEAR 

English _ _ Composition _ 5 

Classics 

History of American Literature 

Spelling 
Mathematics Plane Geometry 5 



COURSES OF STUDY 19 

COURSE A— Continued Hours per Week 

Science Physics 5 

Zoology — First Semester (3) _._ 3 

Agriculture — Second Semester (3) 
One of the following: 
Animal Husbandry 
Dairying 
Poultry 
Field Crops 

Home and Community Sanitation 2 

Vocational Farm Mechanics (Boys) (2) „ 2 

Domestic Art (Girls) (2) 
School Gardening 

Total 22 

FOURTH YEAR 

English ...Composition 5 

Classics 

History of English Literature 

Spelling 
Mathematics ...Solid Geometry — First Semester (5) 5 

Algebra — Second Semester (5) 

Science Chemistry 5 

History American History and Civics 5 

Elementary Economics _ _ 3 

Vocational School Gardening 

Total 23 



(For schools with three teachers.) 

FIRST YEAR COURSE B Hours per Week 

English Grammar 5 

Composition 

Classics 

Spelling 
Mathematics Arithmetic — First Semester (5) 5 

Algebra — Second Semester (5) 

Science Agriculture (First Semester) (5) 5 

Latin Beginner's Latin — Second Semester (5) 

History General History „ 3 

Drawing ..Geometrical and Linear Drawing 2 



20 COUNTY HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL 

COURSE B Continued Hours per Week 

Vocational Manual Training (Boys) (2) 2 

Cooking (Girls) (2) 

Home and School Gardening 

Total 22 

SECOND YEAR 
English - :. Composition and Rhetoric 5 

Classics 

Spelling 

Mathematics Algebra 5 

History English History 8 

Latin Beginner's Latin (Completed) 5 

Vocational Domestic Science (Girls) (2) 2 

Woodworking (Boys) (2) 

Vocational Accounts 2 

School Gardening 

Total 22 

THIRD YEAR 
English Composition 5 

Classics 

History of American Literature 

Spelling 

Mathematics Plane Geometry 5 

Science Physics 5 

Latin Caesar, Books I-IV, Prose Composition 5 

Home and Community Sanitation 2 

Vocational Farm Mechanics (Boys) (2) 2 

Domestic Art (Girls) (2) 

School Gardening 

Total 24 

FOURTH YEAR 
English Composition 5 

Classics 

History of English Literature 

Spelling 
Mathematics Solid Geometry — First Semester (5) 5 

Algebra — Second Semester (5) 

Science Chemistry 5 

History American History and Civics 5 

Latin Cicero, Six Orations, Prose Composition 5 

Vocational Home and School Gardening (Optional) 

Total 25 



COURSES OF STUDY 21 

(Schools with four or more teachers may offer 
Courses A, B, and C.) 

FIRST YEAR COURSE C Hours per Week 
English Grammar 5 

Composition 

Classics 

Spelling- 
Mathematics. Arithmetic — First Semester ( 5 ) 5 

Algebra — Second Semester (5) 

Science Agriculture — First Semester ( 5 ) 5 

Latin Beginner's Latin — Second Semester ( 5 ) 

History General History 3 

Drawing Geometrical and Linear Drawing 2 

Vocational Manual Training (Boys) (2) 2 

Cooking (Girls) (2) 

Home and School Gardening 

Total 22 

SECOND YEAR 
English Composition and Rhetoric 5 

Classics 

Spelling 

Mathematics Algebra 5 

History English History 3 

Latin Beginner's Latin (Completed) 5 

Vocational Domestic Science (Girls) (2) 2 

Woodworking (Boys) (2) 

Vocational Accounts 2 

Home and School Gardening 

Total 22 

THIRD YEAR 
English _ Composition 5 

Classics 

History of American Literature 

Spelling 

Mathematics _ Plane Geometry 5 

Modern Languages ...German or French 5 

Latin Caesar, Books I-IV, Prose Composition 5 

Home and Community Sanitation 2 

Vocational Farm Mechanics (Boys) (2) 2 

Domestic Art (Girls) (2) 

School Gardening 

Total 24 



22 COUNTY HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL 

FOURTH YEAR COURSE C— Continued Hours per Week 
English Composition _ „ 5 

Classics 

History of English Literature 

Spelling 
Mathematics Solid Geometry — First Semester (5) § 

Algebra — Second Semester (5) 

Modern Languages German or French 5 

History American History and Civics 5 

Latin Cicero, Six Orations, Prose Composition 5 

Vocational School Gardening 

Total 25 

Note: No school shall offer more than two foreign languages, 
one of which must be Latin. 

Note: At the discretion of the principal, fourth year mathemat- 
ics is elective in Course C for girls pursuing courses in music, ex- 
pression, or art. 



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THE SILVER, BURDETT & COMPANY'S SERIES OF CLASS- 
ICS, FROM WHICH SELECTIONS ARE TO BE MADE 
FOR THE INDIVIDUAL HIGH SCHOOLS, 
ARE AS FOLLOWS: 

Addison— Sir Roger de Coverley Papers $0.22 

Arnold — Sohrab and Rustum 22 

Baldwin — The Book of Elegies .44 

Baldwin — Choice English Lyrics .44 

Baldwin — The Famous Allegories 44 

Baldwin — Six Centuries of English Poetry 44 

Burke — Speech on Conciliation with the American Colonies 22 

Burns — Selected Poems 22 

Carlyle — Essay on Burns 22 

Chesterfield — Letters 22 

Coleridge — Rhyme of the Ancient Mariner 22 

Cooper — The Last of the Mohicans 39 

DeQuincy — Revolt of the Tartars 22 

Dryden — Palamon and Arcite 22 

Eliot — Silas Marner 26 

Goldsmith — The Traveler and the Deserted Village 22 

Goldsmith— The Vicar of Wakefield 26 

Irving — The Sketch Book 39 

Keats— The Eve of St. Agnes 22 

Kinard — Old English Ballads 22 

Lamb — Essays _22 

Macaulay — Essay on Addison ..,.,..,.... 22 

Macaulay — Essay on Milton 22 

Macaulay — The Lays of Ancient Rome 22 

Milton — Paradise Lost, Books I and II 22 

Milton — Selected Minor Poems. 22 

Poe's Selected Poems and Tales of Edgar Allen Poel" .26 

Pope — Essay on Man, and Essay on Criticism... 22 

Pope — Translations of Homer's Iliad 22 

Pope— The Rape of the Lock 22 

Ruskin — Sesame and Lilies 22 

Rutland's Old Testament Stories '35 

Scollard — Ballads of American Bravery 35 

Scott — Ivanhoe '44 

Scott — The Lady of the Lake 26 

Shakespeare — As You Like It. 22 

Shakespeare — Hamlet 26 

Shakespeare — Julius Caesar 22 

Shakespeare — King Henry the Fifth *26 

Shakespeare — Macbeth (166 pages) '22 

Shakespeare— Macbeth (269 pages) 28 

Shakespeare— The Merchant of Venice '22 

Shakespeare — Midsummer Night's Dream '22 

Shakespeare — The Tempest '90 

Shakespeare— Twelfth Night "09 

Shelley — Adonais and Alastor ' 99 

Southey— Life of Nelson.. %% 

Tennyson— Holy Grail . %% 

Tennyson— Idylls of the King %t 

Tennyson — In Memoriam... 9^ 

Tennyson— The Princess 99 

Webster— First Bunker Hill Oration 99 

Wordsworth— Selected ' Poems 22 



ENGLISH 



jy^HMK aim of a high school course in English is two-fold: 
\KmJ\ first, to aid the student in acquiring the power to speak 
and write English well ; and secondly, to cultivate in 
him a love and appreciation of good literature. To 
attain these ends, the course must include grammar, rhetoric 
and composition, and literature. Of the five periods devoted 
to the study of English each week, the following distribution 
is suggested. 

First Year: Grammar, two periods; Composition, two pe- 
riods; Literature (Classics), one period. 

Second Year: Rhetoric and Composition, three periods; 
Literature (Classics), two periods. 

Third Year: Composition, one period first semester, two 
periods second semester ; History of American Literature, 
three periods during first semester only; Literature (Classics), 
one period during the first semester, three periods second 
semester. 

Fourth Year: Composition, one period first semester, two 
pern ids second semester; History of English Literature, three 
periods during first semester only; Literature (Classics), one 
period first semester, three periods second semester. 

Consecutive daily recitations should be held in each subject 
for which more than one period per week is specified. 

GRAMMAR.— I. INTRODUCTORY SUGGESTIONS 

Students who have completed the elementary grades are 
supposed to be fairly well grounded in the rudiments of Eng- 
lish grammar. They should at least be able to analyze simple 
sentences and the less involved types of compound and com- 
plex sentences ; to recognize the different parts of speech ; to 
explain the more ordinary constructions ; and to inflect with 
reasonable accuracy nouns, pronouns, and verbs. 

In the first year of the high school, therefore, the aim should 
be. first, a systematic study of the principles of grammar, with 
analysis and parsing of somewhat more difficult sentences: and 



ENGLISH 3? 



secondly— what is of equal importance — the application of 
these principles to the work in composition and literature that 
accompanies the work in grammar. The study of technical 
and theoretical grammar is unquestionably of value in the 
training of the mind. Such mental discipline, however, may 
be, and often is, secured equally well by the study of foreign 
languages. We should, therefore, emphasize in our teaching 
of grammar the practical benefits derivable from its study. The 
uses of a knowledge of grammar — its indispensable aid in test- 
ing the accuracy and correctness of our own composition, oral 
and written, and in the interpretation of literature — should be 
constantly insisted upon. To this end, we should avoid plac- 
ing undue stress on the analysis and parsing of the more intri- 
cate constructions. Don't let us forget that even to mature 
minds advanced technical grammar is a difficult subject. It 
is clearly unreasonable to expect that students who have just 
entered the high school shall have the trained intelligence 
necessary for the understanding of involved constructions and 
the analysis of unusual or idiomatic expressions. Drill them 
over and over again in the commoner constructions of gram- 
mar. 

We should bear in mind, too, that our students have been 
grinding away at grammar for years before reaching the high 
school, and that, unless we can instil some life into the sub- 
ject by our manner of presenting it, it is likely to prove but a 
dreary task. There is nothing more hopelessly mechanical and 
deadening than the ordinary routine method of teaching gram- 
mar. To insist on a student's telling us, for the hundredth 
time, that the word 'boy' is a common noun, third person, sing- 
ular number, masculine gender, is hardly the best way to in- 
spire enthusiasm for the subject. It is furthermore of no 
conceivable benefit to anybody of sufficient intelligence to be 
admitted to the high school. 

Emphasize the essentials, then, and pass over rapidly, or 
omit altogether, details that are either too easy or too diffi- 
cult for boys and girls just entering upon high school work. 
Make constant application, also, of the student's knowledge of 
grammar to the correction of his own individual faults in oral 
and written composition, and to the explanation of difficult 
passages in the literature he is required to read. By this means 
he may be brought to realize that a knowledge of the grammar 



38 COUNTY HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL 



of his mother tongue is essential to the clear and correct expres- 
sion of his own ideas, and to his proper understanding and 
appreciation of the ideas of others. He will then perhaps 
come to see that grammar is not merely a means of mental 
discipline, but a tool for him to work with, and a key that will 
open up to him hidden treasures of thought. 

GRAMMAR.— II. SUGGESTIONS FOR TEACHING 

In teaching grammar it is important from the very begin- 
ning of the course to win the confidence and interest of the 
pupils. To this end nothing is more important than giving 
the pupils at the outset a clear conception of the nature of the 
high school course in grammar. The pupils are usually of the 
opinion that they mastered grammar in the elementary grades, 
and they resent on the part of the instructor any effort to teach 
them a subject that they already know. The teacher should, 
therefore, explain to them that the study of grammar in the 
high school implies the study of a more advanced grammar, 
and is for pupils of more mature age than are the pupils of the 
elementary school. The foregoing Introductory Suggestions 
clearly set forth the standpoint from which high school gram- 
mar must be taught, and present the high school point of view. 

The following specific suggestions should be of value to the 
teacher : 

1. Never reproach a class because of the grammar that they 
have forgotten since leaving the elementary school, and never 
make compromising comments upon the character of the train- 
ing that the pupils received before entering the high school. 
The teacher should make a study of the course in grammar of 
the elementary grades, and should seek no occasion to criticise 
the course before his pupils. 

2. Be absolutely frank with the class when difficult ques- 
tions arise. Children quickly detect evasions ; and once they 
become suspicious, they lose confidence in their teacher. The 
public school teacher need not be a master of scientific gram- 
mar in order to teach well ; but it is necessary for him to be 
familiar .with common English idioms and to have at his com- 
mand convenient references for study. The following books 
will be helpful: (1) "The Teaching of English Grammar," 
Barbour, Ginn and Co.; (2) Emerson's "History of the Eng- 



ENGLISH 39 



lish Language," Macmillan ; (3) "New English Grammar," 
Vols. 1 and 2, Sweet, Clarendon Press Series; (4) "History 
of English," Champney, Macmillan; (5) "English Grammar," 
Baskerville and Sewell, American Book Co.; (6) "Advanced 
English Grammar," Kittredge and Farley, Ginn and Co. 

3. Before assigning the first lesson in Sanford and Brown's 
"English Grammar," the teacher should discuss the new termi- 
nology with the class. Read the authors' preface to the text- 
book before beginning the discussion. The teacher might 
talk to the class in this manner : 

I am sure that this class will be glad to hear that they are 
to study a grammar in which the names and terms have been 
so selected that they may be used in any grammar, whether it 
be an elementary school grammar or a high school grammar, 
or a French, a German, a Latin, or a Greek grammar. Until 
recently each new grammar was written with new terms and 
new names so far as the author wished to use new terms and 
new names ; but in the future in the new grammars the same 
terms and names will be used that you learn this year. You 
might call yourselves pioneers, because you are leading the 
way to something new and something better than has been 
known before. Of course, as pioneers, you will have to face 
some hardships, but none that you cannot overcome. For a 
while you will have to think very carefully to keep from call- 
ing the good old-fashioned possessive case by its old familiar 
name, for in the new grammars this is called the genitive case. 
There are many other names which have been changed. I 
shall talk with you about these new names from time to time 
when we are studying the textbook, and I shall tell you, when- 
ever I can, why they are used instead of the old names that 
you learned before you came to the high school. In a few 
years, perhaps, these new names will be taught also in the 
elementary schools, because in your pioneer work you are set- 
ting a good example. 

If the teacher sets the class to work upon the new textbook 
without some explanation of the new terminology, the pupils 
will very likely fall into the wrong mental attitude and regard 
the study as unduly burdensome and confusing. No teacher 
should undertake to give the necessary explanation without 
first studying the "Report of the Joint Committee on Gram- 



40 COUNTY HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL 



matical Nomenclature.*' The report may be obtained by writ- 
ing to the following address : 

The Secretary of the National Educational Association, De- 
troit, Michigan. 

I. The teacher should constantly ask himself, (1) "Is there 
any method of inductive approach to this lesson?" or (2) 
"What is the inductive problem in this recitation?" For ex- 
ample, in answer to these questions the teacher may conclude 
that an exhaustive study should prepare the way to lessons 
in the textbook on Relative Pronouns. Now, how should this 
study be conducted? In answer to the question, the following 
method is suggested : 

Let us suppose that the pupils are asked to bring to the 
class sentences in which are used the words, that, what, -which, 
who, as, and but. We may for convenience assume that among 
other sentences the following two sentences are brought to the 
class by the pupils : 

(1) Water that is stagnant is poisonous. 

( 2 ) I ask that you tell the truth. 

By class discussion the pupils under the leadership of the 
teacher discover that that in sentence one, first, connects that 
is stagnant to the rest of the sentence; second, it refers to the 
word water; third, it has the same person, number, and gender 
as the word water; fourth, it is the subject of the verb is in the 
clause which it connects. 

In sentence two, the class discover by investigation and dis- 
cussion that that does not refer to another word in the sen- 
tence ; that it has no case relationship, or other close relation 
to other words in the sentence; that it merely introduces the 
clause you tell the truth. 

Investigation should then be extended to other sentences in 
which that occurs. Perhaps a sentence will be discussed in 
which that is used adjectively as a demonstrative adjective, or 
substantively as a demonstrative pronoun. 

The pupils should understand that they are to make indi- 
vidual groups of all sentences in which that is used in similar 
ways. 

After this grouping has been dime, more sentences are to be 
discussed, in which the words who, which, what, as, and but 
are successively examined with the purpose of discovering in 
each case the exact relation to other words in the sentence. 



ENGLISH 41 



After this investigation new groups will be formed ; but many 
of the sentences will contain words resembling in use the uses 
of that in the sentences already examined. The process of 
investigating and grouping is continued until the teacher is sat- 
isfied that the pupils can classify according to use the words 
that are being studied. The groups should be written on the 
blackboard. 

At this stage, the teacher should direct the attention of the 
class to the group of sentences containing the words used only 
as relative pronouns. The class should then state its defini- 
tion of a relative pronoun by generalizing the functions and 
properties of the relative pronouns used in this group of sen- 
tences. 

After the class have completed their classifications of the 
words, that, which, what, who, as, and but, the teacher may 
assign in the textbook lessons on the relative pronoun. In 
conducting the recitation the teacher should require the class 
to depend upon reason rather than upon memory. 

An exercise of this character must be conducted in a sys- 
tematic manner, and must be sufficiently exhaustive to be con- 
vincing to the pupils. The teacher should endeavor to make 
clear to the children that a classification or a generalization 
must be both inclusive and exclusive. Every definition and 
every classification must stand this test. The teacher will be 
aided greatly in conducting exercises of this character, if he is 
guided by the principles underlying all sound exposition. These 
principles may be studied in any rhetoric, under the treatment 
of exposition. (References: Brooks and Hubbard's "Rhetoric 
and Composition;" Baldwin's "College Manual of Rhetoric 
and Composition;" Canby and Opdycke's "Elements of Com- 
position.") 

Note: De Garmo's "Principles of Secondary Education" 
gives complete exposition of the inductive method of teaching. 

The teacher will find it both profitable and fascinating to 
turn the pages of the textbook in advance of the class and 
plan, whenever necessary, an inductive approach to important 
principles and definitions. Time will be required for these 
exercises; but bear in mind that the time element is of impor- 
tance in the teaching of grammar. 

5. The teacher's ingenuity will enable him to vary the 
method of induction, and combine the inductive with the deduc- 



42 COUNTY HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL 

tive method. For example, the teacher may, while emphasizing 
function, call attention to common resemblances. In teaching 
the uses of the accusative case, distinct advantage is gained 
by making inductions, first, with regard to the direct object, 
and then requiring the pupils to discover the ways in which 
other uses of the accusative resemble or differ from the direct 
object. The uses of the nominative case may be treated in a 
similar manner. 

6. It is important that exercises in grammar be not only 
analytic in nature but also synthetic. The pupils should be 
required to construct many sentences illustrating the principles 
studied. Exercises in analysis must be alternated with exer- 
cises in constructive grammar. Constructive exercises are fre- 
quently neglected for the reason that the pupils construct sen- 
tences very slowly in the class. In order to* remedy this diffi- 
culty the teacher should require that many sentences be written 
at home and brought to the class for discussion. 

7. Formal grammar makes almost no distinction between 
structure and meaning. It would seem to be proper to em- 
phasize structure while the textbook in grammar is being 
studied, yet the pupils will ask many troublesome questions as 
to distinctions in form and meaning. For example, in discuss- 
ing such a sentence as, It seems that all desired peace, the 
question will naturally arise as to whether // seems or tliat all 
desired peace is the principal clause. The pupils may be told 
that // seems constitutes the principal clause, but they know 
from the meaning of the sentence that that all desired peace 
constitutes the main thought that is expressed. The teacher 
may help the pupils in two ways : 

First : Tell the pupils that there are distinctions of form 
and meaning. Illustrations may aid them in understanding. 
A chandelier compared with the hook that supports it, so far 
as beauty and immediate purposes of illumination are con- 
cerned, is far more important than the hook; yet from the 
viewpoint of the general scheme of the lighting outfit, from 
the structural viewpoint particularly, the hook may be regarded 
as the principal element in the contrivance. 

Second : In sentences of the character used in the foregoing 
example, the principal clause may be conceived of as the whole 
sentence, since the subordinate clause is an essential element of 
the principal clause, being in this instance a substantive used 
as the predicate nominative. 



ENGLISH 43 



During the second, third, and fourth years in the high 
school, the teacher should emphasize the study of grammar 
from the viewpoint of meaning. For example, let us con- 
sider the definition of a compound sentence as it is given in 
the textbook. The definition is, "A compound sentence is made 
up of two or more simple sentences." In the second, third, 
and fourth years of the course, this definition should be studied 
from the standpoint of unity of thought, and the pupils should 
be taught the relationship between structure and meaning. In 
the analysis of adverbial or adjectival clauses increasing at- 
tention should be given to the exact meaning of the modifying 
clauses. The pupils should strive to determine the exact na- 
ture of the adverbial idea, and to state its exact relation to the 
meaning of the idea or thought that is modified. 

The conclusion, then, is that while the textbook is being 
studied emphasis should be placed largely upon structure, but 
that the pupils should be cautioned not to confuse structure 
with meaning, and that later the emphasis should be shifted 
from structure to meaning. 

COMPOSITION.— I. INTRODUCTORY SUGGESTIONS 

The teacher will receive valuable aid from the following 
suggestions on the teaching of composition : 

(1) One must keep in mind that she has four years within 
which to teach composition. When pupils come with faulty 
spelling, faulty punctuation, with almost everything faulty, 
the teacher is likely to become excited and try to correct too 
many things at once. It is best that she select the most 
crying need and work upon that steadily for a month until 
improvement is under fair way, then proceed to the next ur- 
gent need, and so on. — (Claudia Crumpton, in the Proceed- 
ings of the Alabama Educational Association, 1914.) 

(2) Encourage all the teachers in the other departments of 
the school to demand good written and spoken English from 
their pupils. — (Chas. Swain Thomas, in the English Journal.) 

(3) Criticise constructively and sympathetically as much by 
personal conference as possible. — (Chas. Swain Thomas, in 
the English Journal.) 

(4) Select some suitable subject for a theme and spend the 
recitation period in having the class work out together the 



44 COUNTY HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL 



selection and order of the topics. — (Chas. Swain Thomas, in 
the English Journal.) 

(5) Pupils need to he taught how to criticise their own work 
systematically, and then how to criticise the work of others. 
Small results are to he obtained without telling the pupils just 
what to look for, what they will probably hud, and what criti- 
cism they ought to make. — ( Sherwin Cody.) 

id) The teacher should point out the errors in spelling, in 
grammar, in simple rhetoric. Then as a means of securing 
broad ideas in structure, the pupil should lie taught to ask 
himself three important questions. Of the whole composition, 
of each paragraph, of each sentence, he should ask: (1) Is 
it. unified? (2) Is it coherent? (3) Is the emphasis proper?" 
(Chas. Swain Thomas, in the English Journal.) 

(7) The following extracts from "A Composition on Red 
Ink." by Alfred W. Hitchcock, English Journal : 

Choose sensible subjects. Make as careful study of hoys 
and girls as you have of Shakespeare and Milton. 

Make your tasks definite. 

Anticipate errors. Drill, drill, drill, orally when possible; 
go over the common errors time and again. Use blackboard 
freely to point out mistakes in spelling and punctuation and 
diction and construction. Anticipate, head off! Otherwise, 
what a lot of red ink it does take ! 

is) Oral composition and class correction are good means 
of improving written composition, but the time will never 
come when the careful correction of papers is unnecessary. 
However, effective and economical methods will do a great 
deal to reduce the number of errors and so make the correc- 
tion of composition easier. — ( Mrs. Henry Hulst, in the Eng- 
lish Journal.) 

STATEMENT OF AIMS 

The following statement of aims is quoted from the prelimi- 
nary report of a committee recently appointed by the National 
Council of Teachers of English, for the reorganization of 
English in the secondary schools : 

( 1 I Expression in speech includes : 

( a ) Ability to answer clearly, briefly, and exactly a ques- 
tion on which one has the necessarv information. 



ENGLISH 45 



(b) Ability to collect and organize material for oral dis- 
course on subjects of common interest. 

(c) Ability to present with dignity and effectiveness to a 
class, club, or other group material already organized. 

(d) Ability to join in an informal discussion, contributing 
one's share of information or opinion, without wandering from 
the point and without discourtesy to others. 

(e) For those who have or hope to develop qualities of 
leadership, ability, after suitable preparation and practice, to 
address an audience or conduct a public meeting, with proper 
dignity and formality, but without stiffness or embarrassment. 

( f ) Ability to 'read aloud in such a way as to convey to the 
hearers the writer's thought and spirit and to interest them in 
the matter presented. 

Note: All expression in speech demands distinct and natural 
articulation; correct pronunciation; the exercise of a sense 
for correct and idiomatic speech ; and the use of an agreeable 
and well managed voice. The speaker should be animated by 
a sincere desire to stir up some interest, idea, or feeling in his 
hearers. 

(2) Expression in writing includes: 

(a) Ability to write a courteous letter according to the 
forms in general use, and of the degree of formality or inform- 
ality appropriate to the occasion. 

(b) Ability to compose on the first draft a clear and read- 
able paragraph or series of paragraphs on familiar subject- 
matter, with due observance of unity and order and with some 
specific detail. 

(c) Ability to analyze and present in outline form the gist 
of a lecture or piece of literature, and to write an expansion 
of such an outline. 

(d) Ability, with due time for stud}- and preparation, to 
plan and work out a clear, well-ordered, and interesting report 
of some length upon one's special interests, literary, scientific, 
commercial, or what not. 

(e) For those who have literary tastes or ambitions, ability 
to write a short story, or bit of imaginative composition, with 
some vigor and personality of style and in proper form to be 
submitted for publication, and to arrange suitable stories in 
form for dramatic presentation. 



46 COUNTY HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL 

Note : All expression in writing demands correctness as to 
formal details, namely, a legible and firm handwriting, correct 
spelling, correctness in grammar and idiom, and observance 
of the ordinary rules for capitals and marks of punctuation. 
The writer should make an effort to gain an enlarged vocabu- 
lary, a concise and vigorous style, and firmness and flexibility 
in constructing sentences and paragraphs. 

COMPOSITION.— II. SUGGESTIONS FOR TEACHING 

(Much Material in the Outline has been drawn from reports of the 
National Council of Teachers of English.) 

FIRST YEAR, FIRST SEMESTER 
(Two Periods Weekly) 

I. Text, Fansler and Fansler's "Exercises in English Form 
and Diction." 

(a) Principles for study: 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 11, 13, 16, 17, 20, 
VI. 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 30, 34, 39, 42, 44, 48, 55, 57, 58, 59, 
62, 63, 73, ; t-81, 86, 87, 89, 92, 102, 103, 110. 

(b) Suggestions: Before attempting to teach the book, the 
teacher must master the preface to the "Exercises in English 
Form and Diction." While the study of the "Exercises" is in 
progress, practical application of the principles should be made 
in the correction of themes. The study of the "Exercises" 
must be conducted in an absolutely systematic manner. 

II. Em pliasis is placed upon (1) free expression of thought 
in both written and oral composition, ( "2 ) a mastery of the 
mechanical features of the theme. 

III. Oral Expression: The pupils are given frequent prac- 
tice in reading aloud. Selections from Elson's Reader are to 
be memorized and recited before the class. Attention is given 
to position, breathing, and the correct use of the voice in 
reading and speaking. Pupils visit places of interest in the 
community, make detailed observations, and report these ob- 
servations to the class. (The teacher should read the refer- 
ences given in the accompanying bibliography.) 

IV. (1) Written Composition: Original themes, and ex- 
ercises in Fansler's "English Form and Diction." 

Special stress is placed upon the construction of sciences 
illustrating the principles studied in the "Exercises in English 



ENGLISH 47 



Form and Diction." Practical application of the principles is 
persistently made in theme revision. 

(2) General Directions: Themes are written weekly. All 
themes are criticised by the teacher and returned to the pupils 
for revision. The general directions given on pages 360-363 
of Clippinger's "Composition and Rhetoric" are to be applied 
in the preparation and criticism of all themes. Special attention 
is directed to the marks of correction given on pages 361-362. 
Written examinations are regarded as important exercises in 
writing. 

(3) Outlines: The teacher must not assume that the pupils 
can plan and outline themes without special training. A stan- 
dard form must be chosen for theme outlines. The discussion 
of the outline given on pages 69-74, Clippinger's "Composition 
and Rhetoric," may be adapted to the needs of the course. No 
theme should be accepted that is not accompanied by an out- 
line. 

(4) Spelling: Careless spelling must not be tolerated. Five 
misspelled words are excessive in a theme by a pupil of the 
first year. Make list of words commonly misspelled and drill 
the pupils on these lists. 

(5) 77/(7 Dictionary: The pupils require repeated instruc- 
tion on the use of the dictionary and special practice on the 
pronunciation of words diacritically marked. 

(6) Personal Conferences: Individual conferences are in- 
dispensable to effective training in composition. Appoint- 
ments should be met punctiliously by both teacher and pupils. 

(7) Letter Writing: There is no form of writing more im- 
portant than the letter. The pupils should be required to mas- 
ter the mechanics of form in the beginning of the course. The 
teacher will avoid confusion by basing the entire course on the 
directions for letter-writing given on pages 148-166, Clip- 
pinger's "Composition and Rhetoric." The ingenious teacher 
will always supply motives for the composition of letters. 

(8) Material for Compositions: Material for both oral 
and written compositions should be drawn from the following 
sources : 

(a) The experiences and observations of the pupils in both 
school and home life. 

(b) The literature read in school. 



48 COUNTY HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL 

(c) The subjects studied in other departments of school, 
especially in agriculture, general science, manual training, 
cooking, and home and school gardening. 

Observation: Emphasize training in observation. The pupils 
will find "Sharp Eyes" in "Locusts and Wild Honey,'" John 
Burroughs, both stimulating and interesting. The following 
extract from "The Teacher and the School," Colgrove, is sug- 
gestive : 

"The materials at the teacher's command for training pu- 
pils in observation are abundant and varied. They include 
all the natural environment of the school, the soil, rocks, and 
strata; the changing seasons, clouds, winds, fogs, rain, and 
snow; the varying appearance and position of the sun, the 
moon, planets, and stars ; the trees and plants, their kinds, 
growth, flowers, fruits, and various uses ; animals, as to their 
size, habits, form, color, instincts, movements, food, enemies, 
and uses. And in addition to all these there are the materials 
that may be drawn from the pupil's social environment, the 
persons whom he meets, their occupations, interests, classes, 
dress, customs, institutions." 

FIRST YEAR, SECOND SEMESTER 
(Two Periods Weekly) 

I. Text, Fansler and Fansler's "Exercises in English Form 
and Diction." 

(a) Principles for study: 10, 12, 14. 15, 24, -. ; ;. 28, 31, 33, 
35, 36, 38, II, 13, L5, Ki. L9, 51, 52, 61, 64, 68, 82, si. ss. 89, 
90, 91, 94, 95, '.Hi, !•;, us. 100, 101, 104, 105, 106, 100, ill, 
112, 113, 11 I. 115. 

(b) Suggestions: Read the suggestions given for the first 
semester. Review of the principles studied during the first 
semester is necessary. 

II. The course for this semester includes (1) elementarv 
treatment of the principles of composition, unity, proportion, 
proper arrangement, and coherence, (2) training for natural- 
ness in writing and speaking, (3) training in the accurate 
choice and effective use of words, (4) exercises in paragraph 
writing. 

III. Oral Expression : Emphasize sincerity and animation 
in speech, and intelligent grouping in reading aloud. All ex- 



ENGLISH 49 



ercises are conducted before the class as an audience. Special 
instruction is given upon the preparation of formal and 
informal talks. ( The teacher will find helpful suggestions in 
Ward's "Oral Composition," Macmillan.) The pupils nar- 
rate both real and imaginary experiences and describe both real 
and imaginary scenes. Criticisms are made upon position. 
pronunciation, and articulation. The exercises in oral expres- 
sion are correlated with the exercises in writing. Practice is 
continued in reading aloud. Recitations are conducted with a 
view to training the pupils in habits of correct and accurate 
speech. The pupils are trained to formulate their thought.- 
and to speak with deliberation. Complete answers are re- 
quired to questions. 

IV. (1) Written Composition : Weekly themes are required ; 
all themes are criticised and returned to the pupils for revision. 
The needs of individual students are analyzed, and so far as 
is necessary these needs are attended to in individual confer- 
ences. The course is conducted as in the first semester. Themes 
may be written describing or interpreting pictures, cartoons, 
or works of art. (A list of books on this phase of composi- 
tion teaching is included in the accompanying bibliography.) 
Many of the themes may be in the nature of simple explana- 
tions of familiar processes, or of the principles upon which 
favorite games are played. Occasionally, themes should be 
written upon subjects related to the pupil's study of 
botany, general history, domestic science, woodworking, voca- 
tional accounts, and school gardening. Training in observa- 
tion is continued as in the first semester. 

(2) Letter Writing: The pupils are thoroughly drilled in 
the mechanics of good form. Motives of a social or of a 
business nature are sought in making assignments for letter 
writing. Letters should be required frequently with insistence 
upon absolute correctness in mechanical features. 

SECOND YEAR, FIRST SEMESTER 
(Three Periods Weekly) 

T. Texts, (1) Clippinger's "Composition and Rhetoric." 
Chapters for study: I, Forms of Discourse; IT, Descriptive 
Writing: III. Narrative Writing; VI, Letter Writing; VII, 
Oral Composition; VIII. The Fable; XT, News Writing; XIII, 
Poetry. 



60 COUNTY HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL 

(2) Fansler and Fansler's "Exercises in English Form and 
Diction." 

(a) Principles for study: 3, 8, 9, 18, 19, 29, 32, 37, 39, 40, 
50, 53, 54, 56, 60, 65, 66', 67, 69, 70, 71, 72, 83, 85, 99, 107, 
108, 116-130. 

(b) The study of the "Exercises in English Form and Dic- 
tion" is continued as in the previous year. 

II. The pupil is expected to form habits of sincere, accu- 
rate self-expression. Chief attention is given to a study of 
narration and description. 

III. Suggestions : Keep in mind that the capabilities of the 
pupils vary widely. The pupil who fails in short story writ- 
ing may yet acquire ability in expository writing, if his teacher 
is sufficiently discerning to shift the emphasis of training in 
the right direction. Study each pupil and adapt his training 
to his individual needs. 

Creditable or meritorious writing should be freely com- 
mended. Themes might be displayed occasionally on a bul- 
letin board. The most interesting themes written during the 
month might be bound into a volume and placed in an acces- 
sible place for the inspection of the pupils. Themes should be 
offered to local newspapers for publication. 

IV. Oral Expression : The pupil is given continuous oppor- 
tunity to acquire facility in vocal and physical expression. Class 
exercises include: (1) reports upon current events, interest- 
ing incidents from novels, stories, plays, or poems; (2) vocal 
reading of themes for purposes of criticism; (3) the analysis 
of plots of favorite stories; (4) narration of anecdotes based 
upon incidents in the lives of the pupils; (5) a study and re- 
production of conversation overheard by the pupils; (6) de- 
scription of persons whose personalities are interesting, par 
ticularly persons well known in the school community. 

V. ( 1 ) Written Composition : Formal themes accompanied 
by outlines are required at least weekly. The exercises in- 
clude: (a) written reports of conversation overheard by the 
pupils; (b) imaginary conversation between characters famil- 
iar to the pupils through the study of literature; (c) drama- 
tization of passages from literature; (d) descriptions relating 
to the study of manual arts, cooking, agriculture; (e) a com- 
posite theme on a class newspaper; (f) short story writing; 
(g) the writing of summaries of short stories and novels. 



ENGLISH 51 



(2) Spelling: Insist upon correct spelling in all written 
work. Give drills upon words commonly misspelled. Four 
misspelled words in one theme are excessive. 

(3) Letter Writing: Exercises are preceded by a review of 
the chapter on letter writing. Letter writing for the semester 
might be closely correlated with the study of rhetoric by re- 
quiring (a) friendly narrative letters retelling events or inci- 
dents of vacations or holidays, (b) descriptive letters, (c) let- 
ters purporting to be written by characters in books. There 
should be considerable variety in the character of letters writ- 
ten during this semester. 

(4) Caution: Considerable difficulty will be experienced in 
striving for literary effects in descriptive writing. The term 
"emotional tone," which is freely used in the textbook requires 
careful explanation by the teacher. Encourage the pupils to 
describe real objects, or scenes; e. g., a harvest scene at mid- 
day, a shop bench during the laboratory period. Close analyti- 
cal study must be made of the specimen themes and literary 
models presented in the textbook. The teacher must clearly 
understand that the study of the textbook during the second 
year constitutes the foundation work of the composition courses 
of the third and fourth years. The requirements set forth in 
the textbook cannot be fully met before the end of the fourth 
year. 

SECOND YEAR, SECOND SEMESTER 
(Three Periods Weekly) 

I. Text, Clippinger's "Composition and Rhetoric." 
Chapters for study : IV, Expository Writing; V, Argumenta- 
tive Writing — The Essay — Forms of Public Address — Debat- 
ing; VI, Letter Writing. 

II. Exposition and argument are taught as the most useful 
of all forms of discourse. The oral point of view is empha- 
sized. 

III. Oral Expression: The class is organized for team de- 
bating, and for drills on parliamentary law. A practical study 
is made of the forms of public address, of debating, and of 
extemporaneous talks. Programs are conducted by the class 
upon literary subjects, and upon other subjects of interest to 
the school and community. 



52 COUNTY HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL 

IV. (1) Written Composition: The distinction between fact 
writing and imaginative writing is emphasized. The outline 
and the brief are stressed. Particular attention is given to in- 
dividual conferences. 

(2) Letter Writing: (a) Letter writing constitutes an im- 
portant feature of each semester's work. Letters are written 
with a view to making serviceable application of the principles 
studied in exposition and argumentation. Emphasis is placed 
largely upon business correspondence. Teacher's reference : 
(1) "How to Do Business by Letter." (2) "How to Write 
Letters that Pull," Sherwin Cody. 

(b) Every teacher who is interested in the formulation of 
plans for a competition in interscholastic letter writing will 
write to the Editor of The Bulletin of the Alabama Association 
of Teachers of English. Address communications in the care 
of the Central High School. Birmingham, Alabama. 

THIRD YEAR, FIRST SEMESTER 
(One Period Weekly) 

I. Text, Woollev's "Handhook of Composition." 

It is suggested that assignments lie discussed in the follow- 
ing order : 

( 1) Part III, "Analytical Outlines," ( 2) "Putting Discourse 
on F'aper," (3) Appendix "A." All rules for spelling should 
he memorized. The assignments should be discussed system- 
atically by both the teacher and the pupils. 

II. The themes written during the semester are largely ex- 
pository. Ends to he attained are: (1) skill in planning and 
outlining composition, (2) skill in gathering and organizing 
material, {'?>) advanced knowledge of the structure of the para- 
graph, (I) a clearer conception of the principles of unity, 
coherence, and emphasis. 

III. How to Teach Woollev's "Handbook of Composition." 
It would not seem advisable to teach the "Handbook of Com- 
position" as a textbook. Yet in teaching the pupils the use of the 
"Llandbook" as a reference book, it is necessary to give them 
systematic instruction. High school pupils are usually be- 
wildered by a book of rules ; hence the aim of instruction in 
this instance should be to train the pupils how to consult the 
"Index," or the "Table of Contents" for desired information. 



ENGLISH 53 



Special drills should be given in the use of the "'Synopsis of 
X umbered Rules.'" The "Handbook" should constitute the 
basis on which the instructor rests his criticisms in the correc- 
tion of themes. 

IV. Oral Expression : The training is continued as in the 
second year, with increasing" emphasis upon clear enunciation 
and correct pronunciation. 

V. (1) Composition Exercises: (a) Analytical outlines of 
classics studied during the semester; (b) critical essays upon 
subjects related to the study of literature and to the history 
of American literature; (c) expository themes upon subjects 
related to vocations, amusements, and experiences of interest 
to the pupils outside of school life; (d) expository themes 
upon subjects related to the pupils' study of zoology, agricul- 
ture, home and community sanitation, farm gardening, ath- 
letics, (e) Occasional assignments are made in descriptive, 
narrative, and argumentative writing, (f) Each theme as- 
signment is preceded by appropriate review in Clippinger's 
"Composition and Rhetoric." 

(2) Letter Writing: Letter writing is continued as in the 
second semester of the second year. 

THIRD YEAR, SECOND SEMESTER 
(Two Periods Weekly) 

I. Text, Woolley's "Handbook of Composition." 

The assignments for discussion should be selected from 
Parts I, IV, and V, and from the Appendix of the "Hand- 
book." Review Parts II and III. 

II. Ends to be attained: (I) Effectiveness in diction; (2; 
correctness and variety in sentence structure; (3) effective or 
ganization of the whole composition. 

III. Oral Expression : The training as in the previous semes- 
ters is continued. Greater skill and efficiency are expected. 

IV. (1) Written Composition: Theme assignments are pre- 
ceded by review in Clippinger's "Composition and Rhetoric." 
Paragraph themes or long themes are written weekly. All 
themes must be accompanied by outlines. The material for 
composition is chosen as in the first semester. Themes are 
criticised by the teacher and returned to the pupils for revi- 
sion. 



64 COUNTY HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL 

(2) Letter Writing'. The teacher should make arrangements 
for an exchange of letters between her class and a class in 
another high school. 

FOURTH YEAR, FIRST SEMESTER 
(One Period Weekly) 

I. Reference Books, Woolley's "Handbook of Composition, 
and Clippinger's Composition and Rhetoric. 

II. Ends to be attained: (1) Habits of intelligent planning 
and revising, i '! ) spontaneity of expression. 

III. Exercises in Oral Expression: (1) Correlation of oral 
composition with written composition by reproducing talks in 
the form of writing; (2) extemporaneous talks; (3) debates; 
(4) class conversation upon topics of special interest to the 
pupils; (5) formal speeches on special occasions: Temper- 
ance Hay, Bird Day, Peace Day, Thanksgiving Day, Christ- 
mas, New Year's, birthdays of authors and celebrated men 
and women, e. g., Henry Timrod, S. A. Knapp, Helen Keller; 
(6) illustrated talks, if stereopticon lantern is accessible; (7) 
constant practice in reading themes aloud for purposes of criti- 
cism ; (8) recitations and declamations; (9) dramatic pres- 
entation of sceiu'N from plays of Shakespeare, or original class 
plays. 

IV. ( 1 i Exercises in Composition: Themes are written fort- 
night ly. criticised by the instructor and returned to the pupils 
for revision. Theme assignments are preceded by review of 
Clippinger's "Composition and Rhetoric." Woolley's "Hand- 
book of Composition" is required for reference. The theme 
writing for the semester is characterized by variety in both 
form and content. The teacher should make theme assign- 
ments with special reference to the natural capabilities and 
tastes of the pupils. The exercises should include expositions, 
descriptions, arguments, stories, poems, class plays, editorial 
writing, the writing of advertisements. The semester's work 
should be characterized by a strong expression of the individ- 
ual. Theme subjects should be occasionally selected relating 
to the following studies : chemistry, American history and 
civics, rural economics, school gardening. 

(2) Letter Writing: Interest is stimulated through a study 
of the letters of celebrated writers. Letters may be selected for 



ENGLISH 55 



this purpose from Hawthorne, Longfellow, Helen Keller, 
Robert Louis Stevenson, Sidney Lanier, Tennyson, and Henry 
Timrod. The pupils learn that personal experiences have a 
peculiar charm when embodied in letters of friendship. Un- 
conventionality in diction and form is not permitted. 

(3) Spelling: No theme should be accepted in which more 
than two words are misspelled. Constant attention is given 
to the use of the dictionary. 

FOURTH YEAR, SECOND SEMESTER 
(Two Periods Weekly) 

I. Reference Books: Clippinger's "Composition and Rheto- 
ric," Woolley's "Handbook of Composition." 

II. Ends to be attained: (1) Confidence and self-possession 
in speech ; mastery of the mechanics of the brief ; skill in argu- 
mentative writing. 

III. Exercises in Oral Expression: The exercises in oral 
expression are correlated with the study of both literature and 
written composition. The course is conducted as in the first 
semester. Class reports are made upon subjects related to cur- 
rent literature, science, recent inventions, notable men and 
women of the day. 

(1) Written Composition: Themes are written weekly. Neat- 
ness and accuracy are required in all written work. The exer- 
cises in composition include (a) extensive practice in brief 
making, and in writing argument, (b) a study of Burke's 
Speech on Conciliation as a model for argumentative writing, 
(c) practice in dramatization, journalism, short-story writing, 
writing of advertisements. Theme subjects are drawn from 
all forms of school and community activity, play, sports, work, 
and local commercial and industrial interests. Special practice 
is idven in the preparation of digests and abstracts. 

(2) Letter Writing: No letter should be accepted with mis- 
takes in form. The teacher should supply real motives for 
letter writing. Competition in interscholastic letter writing af- 
fords fascinating possibilities. 

Read current articles in the English Journal. 

The teacher of composition must be an untiring student of 
the subject. The accompanying bibliography will to some 
extent meet the demands of the teacher. Especial attention is 
directed to the following : 



56 COUNTY HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL 

(1) "The Teacher and The School," Colgrove. Chapter III, The 
Study of Children and Its Results; VI, The American Common 
School; VII, The Nature of the School; VIII, The Aims of the 
School; IX, The Work of the School; XV, The Nature of the Teach- 
ing Process; XVI, Some Laws of Teaching; XII, The Nature and 
Importance of Training; XIII, Habit Forming is Character. 

(2) "How to Study," McMurry. Chapter V, The Organization 
of Ideas; VI, Judging of Worth of Statements; VIII, The Using of 
Ideas; X, Individuality. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

The Teacher and the School, Colgrove. Chas. Scribner's Sons. 

How to Study, McMurry. Houghton Mifflin Co. 

Principles of Secondary Education (Vols. I and II), De Garmo, 
Macmillan. 

A Primer of Psychology, Titchener. Macmillan. 

Mental Development, Baldwin. Macmillan. 

The English Journal, University of Chicago Press. 

The Teaching of English, Carpenter, Baker, and Scott. Long- 
mans, Green & Co. 

The Teaching of English, Chubb. Macmillan. 

Teaching the Language Arts, Hinsdale. Appleton. 

Self-Cultivation in English, Palmer. Houghton Mifflin Co. 

The Play of Man, Groos. Appleton. 

Social Organization, Cooley. Chas. Scribner's Sons. 

Essays on Style, Rhetoric, and Language, DeQuincey. Allyn & 
Bacon. 

The Forms of Prose Literature, Gardiner. Chas. Scribner's Sons. 

The Art of Seeing Things (in Leaf and Tendril), John Bur- 
roughs. 

The Voice and Spiritual Education, Corson. Macmillan. 

Evolution of Expression (Vols. I and II), Emerson. Emerson 
College of Oratory, Boston. 

The Province of Expression. Curry, Boston School of Expres- 
sion, 458 Boylston St., Boston. 

Principles of Vocal Expression and Literary Interpretation, 
Chamberlain. Scott, Foresman & Co. 

How to Teach Reading in the Public Schools, Clark. Scott, 
Foresman & Co. 

How to Speak in Public, Keiser. Funk & Wagnalls Co. 



ENGLISH 57 



Practical Public Speaking, Clark and Blanchard. Chas. Scrib- 
ner's Sons. 

Effective Speaking, Phillips. The Newton Co., Chicago. 

Oral Composition, Ward. Macmillan. 

Oral English in Secondary Schools, Smith. Macmillan. 

Dramatization, Simons and Orr. Scott, Foresman & Co. 

Composition Planning, Opdycke. Appleton 

A First Book of Composition, Briggs and McKinney. Ginn 
& Co. 

Essentials of Exposition and Argument, Foster. Houghton 
Mifflin Co. 

The Making of Arguments, Gardiner. Ginn & Co. 

Manual of Debate, Thomas. American Book Co. 

Theme Book in English Composition, Hitchcock. Henry Holt 
& Co. 

The Study of the Paragraph, Thomas. American Book Co. 

The Writing of News, Ross. Henry Holt & Co. 

Writing the Short Story, Esenwein. Hinds, Noble, and El- 
dredge. 

Emerson's History of the English Language. 

Words and Their Ways in English Speech, Greenough and Kit- 
tredge. Macmillan. 

High School Word Book, Sandwick and Bacon. D. C. Heath & 
Company. 

12,000 Words Often Mispronounced. Phyfe. Putnam's Sons. 

Dealers in Photographs and Prints: 

(One Cent Each) 

Perry Picture Company, 76 Fifth Avenue, New York. 

The Helman Taylor Art Company, 257 Fifth Avenue, New York. 

Alfred Hart, 219 West 109th Street, New York. 

Soule Photograph Company, 338 Washington Street, Boston. 

Books on Interpreting Pictures: 

How to Enjoy Pictures, Emery. The Prang Educational Co., 
New York. 

The Appreciation of the Picture, Sturgis. The Baker & Taylor 
Company, New York. 

How to Interpret Pictures, Sward. The Round Table Booklet 
Publishers, Greenville, Pa. 



58 COUNTY HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL 

The Meaning of Pictures, Van Dyke. Chas. Scribner's Sons, 
New York. 

How to Look at Pictures, Witt. C. Bell & Son, London. 

LITERATURE— L COURSE OF STUDY 
First Year 

All the literature of this year is found in Elson's Eighth 
Grade Reader. A manual for teachers of this reader may be 
had free upon request to the publishers. 

For Study : Short Stories by Irving, Hawthorne, and Poe ; 
Longfellow's Evangeline and Whittier's Snow-Bound ; Selec- 
tions from Shakespeare's Plays ; Patriotic Selections. 

For Reading : The rest of the selections in the Elson Reader. 

Second Year 

For Study : Shakespeare's Julius Caesar ; Scott's Ivanhoe, 
or Quentin Durward ; Macaulay's Warren Hastings ; Scott's 
Lady of the Lake. 

For Reading: Mrs. Gaskell's Cranford, or Dickens's David 
Copperfield ; Macaulay's Lays of Ancient Rome, or Coleridge's 
Ancient Mariner; Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress (Part I), or 
Stevenson's Travels With a Donkey; The Odyssey, or Old 
Testament Stories. 

Third Year 

For Study : Shakespeare's Merchant of Venice ; Haw- 
thorne's House of the Seven Gables ; Franklin's Autobiog- 
raphy, or Poe's Tales (selections) ; Lowell's Vision of Sir 
Launfal and selections from Bryant and Holmes. 

For Reading: Shakespeare's Henry V, or a Midsummer 
Night's Dream; Stevenson's Treasure Island, or Dickens's A 
Tale of Two Cities; Irving's Sketch Book, or Addison's Sir 
Roger de Coverley Papers; Poe's Poems, or Gray's Elegy and 
Goldsmith's Deserted Village. 

Fourth Year 

For Study : Shakespeare's Macbeth ; Milton's L' Allegro, II 
Penseroso, and Comus : Burke's Speech on Conciliation, or 



ENGLISH 59 



Washington's Farewell Address and Webster's Bunker Hill 
Oration ; Macaulay's Life of Johnson, or Carlyle's Essay on 
Burns. 

For Reading: Shakespeare's As You Like It, or Twelfth 
Night; Goldsmith's Vicar of Wakefield, or George Eliot's 
Silas Marner; Tennyson's Idylls (selections), or Browning's 
Select Poems ; Parkman's Oregon Trail, or Lincoln's Ad- 
dresses. 

LITERATURE— II. SUGGESTIONS FOR TEACHING 

The literature assigned for reading and study during the 
first year consists mainly of brief masterpieces of prose and 
poetry, chosen primarily for literary and dramatic qualities of 
the most obvious kind. In the hands of a competent teacher 
these selections cannot fail to make a strong appeal to the 
emotions and imaginations of young students. Excellent hints 
and suggestions for study are contained in the Elson text. 

In the second, third, and fourth years the books to be used 
are, with few exceptions, those recommended by the National 
Conference on Uniform Entrance Requirements in English, 
and adopted by standard high schools throughout the coun- 
try. While no claim is made for them of exclusive excellence, 
it is believed they will be found at least as well chosen as any 
other group of classics that might have been suggested. Furth- 
ermore, if taken up in the order indicated, they will prove to 
be reasonably well adapted to the maturity of the average boy 
or girl in the respective grades. A glance at the lists will 
reveal the fact that these classics are all specimens of the fol- 
lowing literary types: (a) dramas, (b) novels or short 
stories, (c) essays, (d) poems, (e) translations. The selec- 
tions are so arranged that the student will make the acquaint- 
ance of at least four of these types during each of the four 
high school years. 

Since there are four classics required for special study dur- 
ing each of the last three years, the time available for each 
will be limited to an average of approximately two months, 
or eighteen recitation periods. The teacher is expected to use 
his discretion in determining which books demand intensive 
study, and which may be made to yield the desired results by 
a briefer and more general treatment. It is obviouSj for exam- 



66 COUNTY HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL 

pie, that the study of Shakespeare's Merchant of Venice calls 
for far more time and attention than Franklin's Autobiography. 

The methods of teaching these classics will necessarily vary 
with the texts under consideration, and with the maturity and 
preparation of the students. One fact, however, which we 
teachers of English need to keep constantly before us is that the 
primary purpose of the high school course in literature is to 
inspire the student with a love for reading good books. Inci- 
dentally, other helpful results will be striven for. In the 
course of the four years the student will, it is hoped, acquire 
a somewhat intimate knowledge of a few of the masterpieces 
of our literature. At the same time he will also learn some- 
thing of the history and development of this literature. But 
unless the high school graduate carries with him into college 
or into life a genuine love for reading, a taste for the best in 
literature, and a largely increased power to appreciate and en- 
joy it, his teacher of English has signally failed in what should 
be the supreme end and aim of all his efforts. 

The responsibility for the success or failure of the work in 
English literature rests largely with the teacher, — more so, 
perhaps, than in any other course in the high school curricu- 
lum. If the teacher himself lacks the power of sympathetic 
appreciation for the best literature ; or possessing this appre- 
ciation, if he lacks the gift of imparting it, it is only the excep- 
tional student to whom the work in literature will not seem 
"a dull and endless strife." Yet even the gifted teacher may 
fail to secure the best results if he lets his enthusiasm for 
learning and scholarship blind him to the needs and limita- 
tions of his students. In the first two years especially there 
should be as little of the critical and analytical attitude toward 
literature as is consistent with serious work. Let the empha- 
sis fall on the story, the characters, the moral purpose, and 
above all, if it is a poem that is the subject of study, on the 
beauty and the power of the poetry itself. Historical and clas- 
sical allusions, the meaning of difficult words and obscure 
passages should not, of course, be altogether ignored. But let 
the student realize that, in the high school, at least, these things 
are of minor import and distinctly subordinate to the great 
end of intelligent and sympathetic appreciation of the master- 
piece as a whole. 



ENGLISH 61 



It will help immensely to secure this much to be desired 
result if the teacher is an effective reader. There is perhaps 
no other power so desirable, — one might almost say, so nearly 
indispensable — in a teacher of literature as this one of sympa- 
thetic and interpretative reading. Oral reading should by all 
means be required of high school pupils throughout the entire 
four years' course. But first of all, let the teacher himself, 
unless he is so fortunate as to have a natural gift for reading, 
practice the art unremittingly, in order that he may not be put 
to shame by the more talented of his pupils, and fail utterly to 
interpret the true spirit and essence of the literature he is 
attempting to teach. 

The books for reading only will in most if not all cases have 
to be left for home reading. To test the student's knowledge 
and appreciation of these classics, it would be well to make 
them the basis of much of the required written work during 
each of the four years. 

The requirement in the history of English and American 
literature during the last two years should be strictly subordi- 
nated to the classics that are being read and studied at the 
same time. This historical work is of importance in order 
that the student may be given a general survey of the whole 
field of literature, and may observe the progress and develop- 
ment of the great literary movements. 

SPELLING 

I. The purposes in the study of Hi;^h School Spelling ore: 

1. To insure the habit of correct spelling. 

2. To enlarge the pupil's vocabulary. 

3. To help him in writing — in choice of words. 

4. To enable him to speak forcefully and effectively. 

■"). To enable him to distinguish fine shades of meaning, 
thereby increasing his interpretative power. 

II. Plans that may be used in developing the subject: 

The first essential is to create and maintain an interest in 
Spelling as such ; to see to it that in the school there is a 
"spelling conscience" kept sensitive. 



62 COUNTY HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL 

Therefore, it goes without saying that no one method of 
recitation will prove constantly effective. There is great op- 
portunity for variety. Below are suggested a few ways : 

1. Oral spelling in which the entire school takes part. (There 
are students who learn more readily through the ear gate.) 
Old time spelling matches in which class is pitted against class, 
or parents against each other or against the school — sometimes 
neighborhoods or different schools contesting — are great de- 
velopers of interest. 

2. Written spelling which must be carefully safeguarded to 
be made effective. Be sure no incorrect form is left for the 
student's eye to fall upon. 

3. Constant, habitual use of the dictionary, and in connec- 
tion with definition, the correct, exact use of the word. 

4. Phonetic spelling orally, and diacritical marks used in 
written spelling. Every student should be trained to spell by 
sound. Nothing is of greater service in working for clear 
enunciation. We would stress this point. 

5. Have frequent rapid pronounciation drills. 

6. Make every lesson a spelling lesson. 

7. We consider when all is said and done that "ivord 
analysis" is the best method of studying Spelling in the high 
school. Whatever purpose is to be subserved, it can best be 
realised here. It carries with it its own guarantee. 

III. The textbook chosen admirably adapts itself to the pur- 
poses and plans suggested. 

"The Suggestions to the Teacher" are practical and timely. 

The student from following the instruction to consult the 
dictionary regarding the unfamiliar words "gets the diction- 
ary habit." 

Part II is given up to word analysis and vocabulary build- 
ing. 

Part III definitely couples Spelling with the other branches 
of study, and furnishes material for pronunciation drills and 
for distinguishing fine shades of meaning. 

Add to this the fact that Spelling is a definite assignment 
throughout the high school course, and we have every reason 
to expect that future high school graduates will be accurate 
spellers. 



MATHEMATICS 



SN TIMES past mathematics along with the ancient lan- 
guages constituted the bulk of almost every course of 
study and required the greater part of the pupils' time 
and effort. Other subjects were deemed of minor im- 
portance and only these two were made the object of serious 
study. In most schools proficiency in mathematics was the 
standard by which the scholarship of a student was judged. In 
recent years, however, owing to the increasing demands of 
modern life upon the school, the curriculum has been greatly 
broadened by the addition of modern languages, English, his- 
tory, the physical sciences, and industrial subjects; and be- 
cause of this mathematics no longer dominates school work as 
it once did. It must now take rank along with other sub- 
jects and receive with them its proportionate share of the pu- 
pils' time. 

The cutting down of the time formerly devoted to mathe- 
matics by the addition of new subjects absolutely essential in 
a well-rounded course of study, without lessening in any way 
the amount of mathematical knowledge which the well-trained 
high school pupil is expected to possess, makes it imperative 
that good teaching be done in order that the pupils may accom- 
plish the required work in arithmetic, algebra, and geometry 
within the time specified in the high school course. 

Too often results show that the ordinary methods of teach- 
ing mathematics in both the elementary and the high school 
are stupefying and deadly. The child begins the study of 
arithmetic and continues it for seven or eight years, and then 
is often unable to solve easy problems in fractions, interest, or 
the "rule of three." After completing algebra the high school 
pupil frequently can not solve the simplest quadratic equation 
"without looking at the book." And the geometry student 
generally learns the book-given demonstrations of the various 
propositions "by heart." The cure for these difficulties lies in 
better methods of teaching and in a clearer understanding on 
the part of teachers of the aim and function of each branch of 
mathematics. 



64 COUNTY HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL 

The keynote of successful teaching of mathematics is inter- 
est, — genuine and abiding interest that leads to sustained ef- 
fort by the pupil. To secure such interest it is necessary that 
the immediate environment and actual experience of the pupi! 
be freely drawn upon at the beginning of a subject, and that, 
as the pupil's power to deal with abstract conceptions grows, 
practical application of the principles involved be made from 
time to time to everyday life. It is hardly necessary to add 
that slavish textbook teaching is generally devoid of interest, — 
a fact responsible for the poor showing many students make 
in mathematics. The textbook should be used only as a guide. 
Many of the problems and illustrations contained therein 
should be discarded in favor of others made or selected by the 
teacher more directly applicable to the life of the pupil. The 
interest of a pupil can often be gained by having him formulate 
problems the solution of which directly affects him by meeting 
some felt need. Both arithmetic and geometry afford many op- 
portunities for exercises of this sort. 

All county high school teachers of mathematics are urged 
to buy and read critically the books named below, which treat 
in full detail the points merely touched upon above. 

Smith, Teaching of Elementary Mathematics, Macmillan 
Co., Atlanta. 

Smith, Teaching of Geometry, Macmillan Co., Atlanta. 

Cajori, History of Mathematics, Macmillan Co., Atlanta. 

Young, Teaching of Mathematics in Secondary Schools, 
Longmans, Green and Co., New York. 

FIRST YEAR 

Arithmetic: Five periods per week during the first half-year. 
As a school stud}- the aim of arithmetic is to develop within 
the child the power of dealing with quantitative relationships, 
of solving problems, met with in every-day affairs of life. As 
a branch of mathematics it is both simple and profound. The 
simpler forms, which practically are of the greatest impor- 
tance, are easily mastered during the period of elementary 
schooling; while a deeper knowledge of the subject can be 
acquired only after the fundamental principles of algebra and 
geometry have been mastered. Hence the proper time to pres- 
ent the deeper arithmetical principles with their applications is 



MATHEMATICS 65 



towards the end of the high school course. It is obviously 
impossible for the average high school student to solve intelli- 
gently a large number of the problems in the ordinary "ad- 
vanced arithmetic" during the first high school year. Many of 
these problems are mere mathematical puzzles, "whetstones 
of the wit," devised by the monks of the Middle Ages to pass 
away the time which hung heavily on their hands. 

In view of the foregoing all that is required in arithmetic 
during the first high school year is a rapid but thorough review 
of the adopted text. Philips and Anderson's Arithmetic, a 
book designed especially for the advanced grades of the ele- 
mentary school. 

At the outset the teacher should look through this book 
carefully with a view to selecting the portions that should be 
emphasized most. Much outside material should be gath- 
ered beforehand to supplement the topics that are of prime im- 
portance. The sources of this material should be neighborhood 
activities, other textbooks, and the teacher's own mind. The 
pupils themselves can contribute many problems from their 
daily activities at home and on the playground. Such topics 
as practical measurements ; percentage ; stocks and bonds ; 
negotiable paper and banking; ratio, proportion and partner- 
ship ; mensuration ; can be given a local color by relating them 
directlv to the life of the community in which the school is 
situated. Only in this way can the active interest of the pupils 
be secured. Pupils should be thoroughly drilled in the writ- 
ing and the reading of numbers, and in rapid processes of add- 
ing and multiplying numbers. 

Teachers will find many helpful problems in such books as 
Calfe's Rural Arithmetic (published by Ginn and Company) 
and Butler and Stevens' Practical Arithmetic (published by 
Charles Scribner's Sons). 

Algebra: Five times per week during the second half year. 
In making the transition from arithmetic to algebra careful 
teaching must be done in order to insure on the part of the 
pupil a clear understanding of the meaning and relations of 
algebraic terms. Every teacher should possess a copy of 
Smith's Teaching of Elementary Mathematics, which is full of 
helpful suggestions as to how algebra should be presented to 
beginners. 

3 HS 



66 COUNTY HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL 



At first, "make haste slowly" should be the watchword of the 
teacher. After the student has gained some degree of facility 
in dealing with algebraic processes, more rapid progress can 
be made. 

During the second half year chapters I-IX, inclusive, of the 
adopted' book. Marsh's Elementary Algebra, should be com- 
pleted. 

SECOND YEAR 

Algebra: Five times per week during year. 

At the beginning of the year one or two weeks at least 
should be spent in rapidly reviewing chapters I-IX, which 
were gone over during the preceding term. Every effort 
should be made to have the students master thoroughly the 
subject as far as Quadratic Equations (chapter XVIII) by the 
close of the first half-year. Much use should be made of the 
graph in simple equations. 

During the second half year, beginning with Quadratic 
Equations the remaining portion of the text should be com- 
pleted. 

THIRD YEAR 

Plane Geometry : Five times per week during year. 

The difficulties that the average student encounters when 
beginning geometry are due not so much to the subject itself 
as to the way it is usually approached. If plunged at once 
into the subject without previous preparation, the student is 
unable to grasp the meaning of the abstract definitions, or to 
follow the close sequence of the reasoning processes. The proper 
method of approach is through concrete geometry, — the draw- 
ing of lines, angles, the construction of geometrical figures, 
and the linear solution of simple problems involving data easily 
comprehended by the learner, — a subject sometimes called 
geometrical drawing. If geometrical drawing be taught by 
the teacher of geometry, it can lie made a most effective intro- 
duction to this study. 

The first five books of the prescribed text. Wells' Plane and 
Solid Geometry, must be completed by the close of the year. 



MATHEMATICS 67 



Suggestions : To obviate wrong methods of study on part 
of the pupil let the teacher discard the textbook at the begin- 
ning- and teach orally for the first two or three weeks, making 
free use of the blackboard for illustrations and proofs. 

After the pupil has learned how to construct geometrical 
figures from the data supplied in the theorems and to arrange 
the various steps of the proof, profitable use can then be made 
of the textbook. 

It is needless to say that the teacher should never hold the 
textbook before him in order to see whether the pupil is demon- 
strating his proposition correctly. The teacher must make 
thorough preparation beforehand if he wishes to teach effec- 
tively. 

Pupils should be required to construct accurate geometrical 
figures when demonstrating propositions. Every class room 
should be adequately supplied with rulers and dividers for 
blackboard use. 

Colored crayon can be used to advantage when it is desired 
to emphasize or to bring into relief certain parts of a figure or 
figures. The textbook plates opposite pages 15, 16, 23 indicate 
how this crayon may be used on the blackboard. 

From the very beginning the pupil should be required to 
solve original problems. The chasm between original prob- 
lems and the problems already demonstrated will disappear 
if the textbook is kept from the pupil when commencing the 
study. 

Practical applications of geometrical principles should be 
made by the pupil from time to time. Many hints as to how 
these applications may be made can be obtained from Smith's 
Teaching of Geometry, an exceedingly helpful book pub- 
lished by G inn. and Company. 

FOURTH YEAR 

Solid Geometry : Five times per week during first half year. 

Solid geometry must be completed by the close of the first 
half year. 

Algebra: Five times per week during second half year. 

During the second half year a thorough review should be 
made of Marsh's Elementary Algebra, and of advanced arith- 
metic, if time permits. 



SCIENCE 



GENERAL SCIENCE 

HTOR the first time general science is to have a place in the 
high school curriculum of our State. The teacher 
I should know of the demands that brought about the 
introduction of this subject, for it is through these 
demands that we are to trace the aims and purposes of the 
teaching of general science. For many years science teach- 
ers have realized the need of such a course as this to be used 
as an introduction to the more difficult sciences of the high 
school. As it has been, the pupil is plunged into the rather 
technical studies of biology, physics, and chemistry with prac- 
tically no preparation for that kind of reasoning which we call 
logical or scientific. Hence, a demand for this subject. Again, 
the busy activities of the world begin to demand that boys and 
girls be given some form of scientific training early in their 
high school work. Many boys and girls leave the high school 
after the first or second year and pass into a busy life filled 
with its scientific problems without having been given any 
scientific training. Here we have the second demand for such 
a course. Then, too, the teacher should realize that this course 
is not the product of the mind of the fad producer but that the 
facts which it would teach are as old as the eternal hills them- 
selves and for many years have been taught with much success 
in the German schools. 

From the demands mentioned above, we may easily under- 
stand the nature of the aims and purposes of this course. In 
order to present the subject clearly the teacher must have a 
clear conception of the things he is to accomplish. We will 
now consider the two important aims of this course, which may 
be summed up as follows : 

(1) To bring the boys and girls into a closer sympathy and 
a 1 letter knowledge of the physical and chemical phenomena of 
every day life. 

(2) To aid the pupil in his progress toward scientific rea- 
soning and to better meet the problems involved in biology, 
physics, and chemistry. 



SCIENCE S9 



Let us consider each of these aims as presented above. Every 
child has been a student of the physical phenomena about him 
long before he takes up the study of science. These facts 
in the child's mind are not arranged in an orderly manner, and 
so it becomes the duty of the teacher to find out in general the 
experiences of the class upon the particular subject in hand 
and then to build to the experiences that they already have. 
It may be the study of machines. You will first discuss with 
the pupils in a general way the various kinds of machines 
with which they are familiar and their uses. This should lead 
them into a discussion of the fundamental parts of a machine 
and they will soon realize that any machine, however complex 
it may seem to be, is made up of certain simple parts. Through 
this subject the teacher must strive to have the pupil see the 
things about him and inquire into those things. The child's 
mind is by nature an inquiring one, forever wanting to know 
such things as, "What makes it rain?'" "What is the sun?", 
"Why do seeds grow?" etc. Today we are beginning to 
realize that it is best not to pass lightly by this instinctive and 
inquiring stage of life, but to endeavor to answer these ques- 
tions as simply and as clearly as we can. So the teacher must 
endeavor to explain the phenomena of life in simple terms. 

Again, this work should function directly with the commun- 
ity life where it is taught. Every community varies more or 
less in its needs. Those communities in the southern part of 
our State would have this science so taught as to explain 
many of the problems of agriculture, while those of the moun- 
tainous regions would have science to deal with the industries 
of mining and manufacturing. The teacher must not let his 
own particular training or peculiar preferences overshadow 
this important part of this subject. He must inquire into the 
activities of the community in which he teaches and fit the 
theory of his training to the practical problems about him. 
From this we will see that some parts of the text will always 
be more forcibly stressed than other parts. 

Now we might think of this subject as helping the pupil 
towards scientific thinking. Teachers of science well know 
that there have been too many failures in high school chemis- 
try, physics, and biology. There are two main reasons for 
this condition, (1) poor teaching and its resultant, (2) the in- 
ability of pupils to do scientific thinking. It is to alleviate the 



70 COUNTY HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL 

second of these two ills that general science has been placed 
in an already overcrowded course of study. The skillful teacher 
will take advantage of this subject to lead the pupil up to a 
consideration of the more advanced sciences, that he may do 
the work more quickly and better. Through the laboratory 
work the pupil will become familiar with the use of apparatus, 
learn methods of procedure, and grow into the knowledge ol 
many physical terms. Fundamentally, the mind of the child 
is very illogical, and readily wanders from subject to subject. 
Then it is of importance that the teacher should not make 
this subject too technical at first, but lead the pupil gradually 
into deeper study. 

After considering the aims to be attained in teaching this 
subject, there would naturally follow a discussion of the 
teaching points best suited to acquiring good results. The 
course of study calls for five periods a week during the second 
semester of the first year. This time should be divided into 
two parts, three periods a week being given to lectures and 
two periods to laboratory work. The text and laboratory guide 
are rather extended for one semester's work, so the teacher 
must be careful to stress the important parts of the subject 
and go hurriedly over the least important. In general the 
teacher might do well if necessary to omit the portions that 
stress chemistry, the extended chapter on musical instruments, 
and the more technical parts on electricity. The class, if not 
able to perform all the experiments, should be required to do 
some on each subject. The laboratory and textbook work 
should be so correlated that after discussing a part of the text 
the class will perform the experiments illustrating it imme- 
diately. Careful oversight of each step of the laboratory work 
should be had by the teacher. It is here that the child must 
begin to become accurate and skillful in the use of apparatus 
and a close observer of the things that occur. Careless work 
here will mean much harm done. 

In many cases the class in this subject will be large and the 
teacher will have access to but few pieces of apparatus. The 
teacher must have his work carefully prepared beforehand so 
that he may be able to carry on two or three experiments at 
the same time, working the pupils in groups of two. But this 
can be done with much success only when the teacher has each 
step planned. Each pupil should have a loose leaf note book 



SCIENCE 71 



in which to keep in permanent form the notes and observa- 
tions made during laboratory work. The pupil should keep 
this rough data made during the experiment in a cheap tablet, 
and this together with his observations should serve in making 
the fuller notes in pen and ink for his permanent note book. 
These notes should be carefully written up at home and hand- 
ed in for correction each week. The pupil should write his 
notes independent of the laboratory guide. In the beginning 
the notes should be simple and brief, growing more extended 
and fuller in detail as the work proceeds. 

Lastly, I wish to warn the teacher against teaching this sub- 
ject in such a way that it will become a "fragmentary course" 
with only bits of science here and there. Care must be taken 
to see that this work does not degenerate into a mere fad as 
have so many of the so-called nature study courses of the 
elementary grades. The different parts of the subject should 
be so presented that they will seem a part of one great whole. 
For the teacher to accomplish this with any degree of success 
he must first of all be well informed as to the important prin- 
ciples of biology, physics, and chemistry ; second, he must 
make a careful study of the current scientific journals ; and last 
but not least, he must be apt in drawing his illustrations from 
the world's activities about him. The teacher should keep a 
note book in which to enter illustrations or data of various 
kinds bearing on the topics of his text. The teacher who goes 
before his class without a reasonable knowledge of the scien- 
tific happenings about him, with no outside illustrations, and 
with a lesson planned merely from the words of the text, will 
fail. Due to a lack of preparation the teacher is likely to 
grow over-technical in his presentation of this subject. 

To conclude, let us note some of the requisites toward suc- 
cessful teaching of general science. The teacher must 

(1) know why general science came into use, 

(2) understand the aim to be attained. 

(3) have a thorough knowledge of the community life in 
which he teaches, 

(4) be careful to correlate the text and laboratory work. 

(5) stress the important parts and not spend too much time 
on minor details, 

(6) insure correct habits in note book keeping. 



72 COUNTY HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL 

( 1 \ avoid the presenting- of a "fragmentary course" in 
science, 

(8) make daily preparation from outside related sources. 

BIOLOGY: BOTANY, ZOOLOGY, PHYSIOLOGY AND 
SANITATION 

If the above biological subjects are to mean any thing at 
all in the high school course, they must be taught by the lab- 
oratory method. Botany is a study of plants, not of books 
about plants ; zoology is a study of animals, not of books about 
animals. The student must learn to value his own observa- 
tions as a way to the truth and get away from the medieval 
appeal to authority, the blighting effects of which are still so 
obvious in modern life. 

A well-equipped laboratory is therefore necessary and should 
be provided in every school as soon as possible. However, the 
introduction of the biological sciences cannot be postponed. 
The main point is that the student should learn about animals 
and plants by studying them and not by studying textbooks 
only. The material is all around us all the time. Animals and 
plants enter into our every day life in hundreds of ways and 
the pupils have been studying biology unconsciously from 
their earliest childhood. The question for us is how can we 
continue this natural interest and at the same time introduce an 
orderly arrangement of the facts and an application of them 
to the daily life of the pupil. 

The Laboratory 

For information concerning the arrangement of the labora- 
tory consult Ganong's The Teaching Botanist and Lloyd and 
Bigelow's The Teaching of Biology. A room 18 x 32 feet with 
the long side north and with three windows on the north side, 
each of the windows five feet wide, will give space enough 
for twenty-four pupils. Sinks, service tables, lockers, black- 
boards, and wall cases must be provided. 

Equipment 

In the selection of equipment the teacher can get a great 
deal of help from Hartman's Manual of Human Physiology 



SCIENCE 73 



intended to accompany Ritchie's Sanitation and Physiology, the 
adopted text, and Payne's Manual of Experimental Botany. 
In these hooks are to be found lists of the apparatus and 
chemicals indispensable for the carrying out of the required 
work, also suggestions for cheaper substitutes. This will meet 
all the requirements for botany and physiology and much of 
it can be used for zoology, too. At least one good compound 
microscope should be provided. It should be provided with 
two objectives (2-3 in. and 1-6 in.) a double nose piece and 
an iris diaphragm. If funds are available it would be well to 
add an Abbe condenser and a 1/12 objective. These additions, 
however, will about double the cost of the instrument and are 
not necessary save for the study of bacteria, blood, and ce'l 
divisions. Write to the firms named on page 135 of Hart- 
man's Manual for catalogs. For every student there should 
be provided a Coddington magnifier mounted on a simple 
stand, say of the Barnes type. In general a very small quan- 
tity of the chemicals mentioned will suffice. Compare the list 
with the supplies in the chemical department and make a com- 
bination order. It would be well to order ten pounds of 
formaldehyde, one gallon of ethyl alcohol, one pound of 
chloroform, five ounces of potassium cyanide (note its ex- 
tremely poisonous nature). The student should provide him- 
self with note books, drawing materials, and a dissecting set. 

Reference Books 

As many of these as possible should be secured. It is true 
that we are to study nature and not books, but other men have 
labored and we have entered into their labors. The refer- 
ence books help us to do this. Secure if possible all of the 
books and bulletins listed in Davison (page 21 et seq.) and 
also A'. L. Kellogg's Insect Stories, J. H. Comstock's Insect 
Life, H. C. McCook's Nature's Craftsmen and especially C. F. 
Hodge's Nature Study and Life. Secure also the books and 
bulletins listed on page 140 of Hartman's Manual. In botany 
as many as possible of the recent texts, Payne's Manual of 
Experimental Botany, Atkinson's Botany for Schools, Bergen's 
texts (Bergen and Davis also Bergen and Caldwell), Coulter. 
Barnes and Cowles textbook of Botany will doubtless be very 
helpful to the teacher. Kerner and Oliver's Natural History 



74 COUNTY HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL 

of Plants, a large two volume work richly illustrated, should he 
added to the school library. 

The aim of the course in botany, it would seem, is to ac- 
quaint the student with the general life history of the flowering 
plants from seed to seed, and with their gross anatomy and 
simpler physiological processes, and to help him to do enough 
classification so that he may become proficient in the use of 
the key and acquainted with as many as possible of 
the common wild flowers. Andrews's Botany, the adopted text, 
is well adapted to this end. It is itself a manual and can readily 
be followed by any one prepared to teach this subject. It con- 
tains more material than can be mastered in a half-year. It 
will be necessary to limit the course to the first 250 pages. The 
material is for the most part easily accessible during the second 
semester. The teacher should see to it that the material called 
for is at hand and then let each student make the observations 
and perform the experiments outlined in the text. Require of 
each student a complete and careful record of the laboratory 
work. Require written answers to the practical questions or 
make them the basi^ of an oral discussion. If managed in 
this way the course will be of profit and interest. Perhaps 
some of the omitted parts of the course, especially the parts on 
fruits, on bacteria and fungi could be brought into the course 
on horticulture, agriculture, and bygiene. 

The scope of the course in zoology is indicated by the text 
chosen, Davison's Practical Zoology. As an outline of the 
work I suggest these as the general topics: (1) The struc- 
ture of insects, using the grasshopper as a type. (2) The life 
histories of insects, ( a) insects of the household, (b) insects 
of the garden, (c) insects of the field and forest, (d) bene- 
ficial insects, (e) insects beautiful and interesting. (See Hodge's 
Nature Study and Life.) (3) The Arachnids. (4) The Crust- 
acea. Having thus made a survey of the Arthropoda return 
to Hodge's plan and study the insectivorous animals, namely 
( -") ) the toads and other amphibia, (6) reptiles, (7) birds. Use 
the English sparrow for structural details and then seek to 
arouse interest in the recognition of birds in the fields. Turn 
then to Part II and study the (8) mollusks, (9) worms, (10) 
Hydra, and lastly, the Protozoa. The course should be varied 
according to the available material and according to the inter- 
ests of the class. If good results are being secured in the 



SCIENCE 75 



study of the insects, for instance, and there is material enough 
for more work on that group do not turn aside from it just in 
order to "finish the course." In the study of the life histories 
of insects breeding' cages will be necessary. Full directions 
for their construction will be found in Comstock's Insect Life. 
Provide also aquaria for the study of the Crustacea, Mollusca. 
frogs and other aquatic forms. In a word, study as many of 
the animals alive as possible but on no account allow them to 
be kept in conditions of discomfort. Treated in this way I am 
sure that the course will arouse the interest of the student in 
the animate world around him, — an interest sure to be a valu- 
able asset in later life. In the texts referred to there is no 
lack of mention of the practical applications of the subject. 

It is wholly unnecessary to write a manual for the course 
in Sanitation and Physiology. Hartman has done that for 
us and done it well. He says in his preface. "The work pre- 
scribed in this manual, which has been specially prepared for 
use with Ritchie's Human Physiology, is as simple as it is pos- 
sible to make it and the directions are so detailed that any 
teacher can carry out most of the experiments." I most 
heartily recommend its use. 

PHYSICS 

The course of study for county high schools in this State 
provides that physics may be taken in the third year of the 
course, four periods per week during the entire year. 

The course of instruction in physics should include : 

1. The study of one standard textbook to the end that the 
student may gain a comprehensive and connected view of the 
more important facts and the laws of elementary physics. 

2. Instruction by lecture table demonstrations in connection 
with the classroom work to be used mainly as a basis for ques- 
tioning upon the general principles of physics and their appli- 
cations. 

3. The performance of at least thirty-five experiments by 
each student. 

Throughout the course especial attention should be paid to 
the common illustrations of physical laws and to their indus- 
trial applications. Accordingly the textbook work should be 
descriptive. Problems are very helpful, but only physical ones 



76 COUNTY HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL 

should be attacked. The tendency often is to make the course 
too mathematical ; if computations enter into the work, the 
quantities should be simple. 

The lecture experiments are an important part of the work 
and should be descriptive and qualitative rather than quanti- 
tative. If the apparatus is not at hand and it is impossible to 
make the experiments in the classroom, drawings on the black- 
board are a great aid in helping the pupils to understand the 
explanations. It is also an excellent practice to have the pupils 
go to the board and make drawings. 

The experimental work is too often neglected, when as a 
matter of fact no successful teaching of Physics can be had 
without it. The teacher should insist that at least one set of 
apparatus for experiments is available. According to the 
manual to be used, only $25 is needed. If the class is not 
undulv large, one set might be sufficient, for the experiments 
may be run in groups, two or three students working on the 
same experiment. It is also economical to prepare a set of 
experiments on a certain topic, say mechanics, or electricity, 
and have the individual pairs work this set at once. The lab- 
oratory work should follow the textbook work as closely as 
possible. The student should be required to take down the 
data in a large, clean note book, the purpose and descriptions 
of the experiment must be written up in clear and concise Eng- 
lish. It should state the object of the experiment. Following 
this should be a short enumeration and description of the ap- 
paratus to be used. A diagram will often help. The third 
heading should be the observation made during the experiment. 
In making observations, all factors should be closely watched 
and the result tabulated in a rational manner. All calculations 
should be made in the note book. In the general conclusions, 
a connected account should be given of the experiment, stat- 
ing reasons for assertions. Every effort possible should be 
made by the teacher to encourage the pupil toward original 
work. The teacher should bear in mind that the simpler the 
apparatus and the more it can be devised by the pupils the more 
effective will be the teaching. There are many experiments, 
as the pendulum, pulleys, forces, etc., that can be made with 
the simple materials at hand. 



SCIENCE 77 



Some experiments: 

1. Measurements and computations. 

2. Weighing. 

3. Solution of forces. 

4. Determination of "g." 

5. Hookes Law. 

6. Coefficient of friction and inclined plane. 

7. Pendulum. 

8. Law of moments. 

9. Center of gravity. 

10. Pulleys. 

11. Levers. 

12. Archimedes' Principle. 

13. Specific gravity of substances. 

14. The barometer. 

15. Boyle's Law. 

16. Capillary action. 

17. Surface tension. 

18. The wave length of sound. 

19. The velocity of sound. 

20. The law of mixtures. 

21. Specific heat of substances. 

22. Conduction of heat. 

23. Heat of fusion. 

24. Magnetism. 

25. The compass. 

26. Static electricity. 

27. Studies of different cells. 

28. Action of electricity on water. 

29. Electric motor and electric bell. 

30. Images in place mirror. 

31. Reflection from place mirror. 

32. Test the power of different sources of light. 

33. Beam of sunlight through prism. 

34. Study of beam of sunlight through prism, in refraction and 
total reflection. 

The manual recommended for use, by Dinsmore Alter, of the 
University of Alabama, gives a list of experiments including the 

more essential ones. The apparatus required is enumerated, the 

price being only $22.10. 



78 COUNTY HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL 

CHEMISTRY 

The subject of Chemistry as taught in the high schools has 
become one of the most important in the course of study and 
if taught in the right spirit and manner may become of great 
value from an educational as well as practical standpoint. 

In making the' subject practical the fundamental principles 
of the science must not be overlooked. 

Perhaps in no other study or subject is the personality of the 
instructor so important. A poor teacher with the very best 
equipment and apparatus will fail, when an enthusiastic teacher 
much interested in the work can with very little equipment 
make the branch of great interest and value. 

The course should extend through the whole year and should 
be given three recitation periods of forty minutes each and 
two double periods for laboratory work, or five recitation 
periods for one-half the year and five double periods for the 
laboratory work the latter half of the year. The writer has 
found the latter plan to work better and give better results than 
the former. 

It is of great importance that the instructor adhere to the 
adopted text and supplement it if he cares to do so with other 
books or his own experience, for most of the texts are written 
in a logical manner and the best results may be gotten in this 
way. 

High school students should never be sent to the laboratory 
nlone to work but should be always under the personal direc- 
tion of the instructor. Outside of the Chemistry to be learned 
in the laboratory, a great deal can be gotten from making and 
arranging apparatus, the care of and acquaintance with chemi- 
cals and supplies, and the keeping of neat and accurate note 
books. Careless and slovenly work should never be tolerated. 

There should be a place for everything and everything 
should be kept in its place. 

In making experiments all apparatus and supplies should be 
cleaned and put up before another experiment is begun. 

Notes of each experiment should be written during or imme- 
diately after the experiment has been performed. 

Notes should be written in the laboratory and books should 
never be taken from the room without special permission of 
the instructor. 



SCIENCE 79 



A very good form to use in writing notes is as follows. 

Date, 

Time required to perform, 

Object of experiment, 

Apparatus used, 

Chemicals used, 

Method, 

Equations, 

Results, 

Observations and remarks, 

In no case should more than one experiment be put on a 
page in the note book, and in some instances a number of pages 
may be required for one experiment. 

There are all kinds of note books, but one of the best consists 
of a good strong cover with loose leaves to be added as the 
occasion demands. 

Notes should be written with a pencil and never with pen 
and ink. Sketches and drawings of apparatus used, though 
they may be crude, will be of great value and interest in the 
note book. 

The equipment actually required to do good work is very 
small indeed and no teacher may excuse himself by saying 
that the amount of his supplies was limited. 

Be willing to make a small beginning and add to it. 

Of course, there must be some chemicals purchased and 
also some equipment, but the ingenious teacher can improvise 
a great deal of apparatus and many chemicals are household 
articles. 

Any nearby druggist will be glad to donate to the school 
large-mouth quinine bottles which make the very best gas 
receivers. Pound bottles, in which fluid extracts come to the 
drug stores and which are generally colored brown and have 
glass stoppers, make splendid solution bottles, while perfume 
bottles in the eight or sixteen ounce size will be found the 
very thing for re-agents. 

A nearby newspaper man will be glad to cut out of waste 
paper in his office powder papers of all sizes. A package 
of them on every desk is of great convenience. 

Cigar boxes properly labeled make splendid containers for 
common articles and supplies. 



80 COUNTY HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL 

There should be containers for everything, no matter how 
commonplace, and everything, no matter how commonplace, 
should be labeled. 

Pupils should always call for supplies from the instructor 
and never be allowed to get them from the stock themselves. 

Laboratory tables may be made by any carpenter and a very 
good but simple and effective one may be made as follows : 
Make a strong pine table three feet high, three feet wide, and 
in multiples of four feet in length. It is well to make the legs 
of square pieces about three-by-three and place them four feet 
apart to make the table rigid. A partition should be set up 
lengthwise the table about eighteen inches high with cross 
partitions the same height every four feet. For each four feet 
of table you then have two good desks facing each other. A 
shelf about four inches wide and one foot above table should 
be put lengthwise for re-agent bottles. Tables should never be 
painted but simply covered with a paraffine dressing and pol- 
ished from time to time. 

Plans and details of neat and inexpensive laboratory desks, 
supplied with drawers and lockers, can be obtained from Prof. 
M. T. Fullan, of the Department of Mechanical Engineering of 
The Alabama Polytechnic Institute. 

A good water and acid proof apron may be purchased for 
fifty cents from the Cabinet Mfg. Co., Quincy, Illinois. 

While a textbook is important, and while a manual giving 
directions for the experiments is almost indispensable, yet to 
blindly follow the directions and mechanically record what is 
done without thinking of the principles involved, will be of lit- 
tle value, and such a procedure should be guarded against by 
the teacher. 

There are a great number of good supply houses and we 
give below the names of a number from whom chemicals and 
supplies may be bought : 

Eimer and Amend, New York ; Central Scientific Co., Chi- 
cago; Queen and Co., Philadelphia; Columbia School Supply 
Co., Indianapolis. 

It is hardly necessary to give a list of the supplies and 
chemicals needed for a splendid list of individual apparatus 
is given on page 167 of the adopted text. Lists of chemicals 
are given on pages 169, 170 and 171. 



SCIENCE 81 



In a one year course in chemistry about sixty experiments 
can be readily performed and with that number in view we 
have selected experiments from the textbook which bring out 
in the best manner the practical phases of Chemistry, including 
a number of good experiments in household Chemistry. 

We have added at the end of the list a number of supple- 
mental experiments, which may be used, if time permits. The 
numbers in parentheses refer to the numbers of the experi- 
ments as given in Newell's General Chemistry : 

List of Experiments 

1. Physical and Chemical Changes. (2) 

2. Physical and Chemical Changes. (5) 

In connection with this experiment, heat a small piece of plat- 
inum wire in the flame and note that it only undergoes a phy- 
sical change. 

3. Preparation of from KC10 3 and Mn0 2 (6) 

4. Preparation of oxides of S, C, and Fe; also show formation 
of oxides of P and Mg. (6) 

5. Preparation and properties of Hydrogen (10) 

6. Water in Foods. (14) 

7. Physical Properties of Water (15) 

8. Chemical Properties of Water (16) A, a. 

9. Solubility of Gases in Water (46) b. 

10. Solubility of liquids in Water (18) 

11. Solubility of solids in Water (19) 

12. Preparation of distilled Water (26) I, 

A simple condenser may be made by running a glass tube 
through an Argand lamp chimney, the ends of the chimney 
being closed with perforated corks. 

13. Qualitative composition of Water. 

Instead of Experiment 29 A, hold a dry beaker or test tube, 
inverted over a lighted jet of Hydrogen, and note that the 
Hydrogen burning in the Oxygen of the Air forms water, 
which is deposited in drops on the sides of the vessel. 

14. Electrolysis of Water (30) 

A very simple apparatus for the electrolysis of water can be 
purchased or improvised at a cost of from $1.00 to $2.00. 

15. Preparation and properties of Chlorine (33) 



82 COUNTY HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL 

16. Preparation and properties of HC1. (35) 

Also apply test III b to a solution of some chloride, as NaCl. 

17. General properties of Acids. (37) 

18. General properties of Bases (38) 

19. A general property of Salts (39) 

20. Neutralization (40) 

21. Preparation of Salts (79) 

22. Preparation and properties of Nitrogen (45) 

23. Preparation and properties of Ammonia and Ammonium Hy- 
droxide (46) 

24. Preparation of Nitric Acid (47) 

25. Properties of Nitric Acid (48) 

26. Tests for Nitric Acid and Nitrates (49) 

27. Per cent of Oxygen and Nitrogen in Air (57) 

28. Amount of Carbon Dioxide in Air (59) 

29. Distribution of Carbon (80) b, d. 

30. Properties of Charcoal (82) 

31. Preparation and properties of Carbon Dioxide (83 and (84) 

32. Test for Carbonates (86) 

33. Preparation and properties of Acetylene (87) 

34. Preparation and properties of Illuminating Gas (94) 

35. Reduction and Oxidation with the Blowpipe (97) A, a, and 
(97) B, b. 

If a gas supply is not available, an ordinary candle may be 
used. 

36. Flame tests for K, Na, Li, Ca, Sr and Ba, as indicated under 
the tests for the metals named. 

37. Physical and Chemical properties of Sulphur (130) and (133) 

38. Preparation and properties of Sulphur Dioxide and Sulphur- 
ous Acid (134) 

39. Properties of Sulphuric Acid (135) b, c. Tests for Sulphuric 
Acid and Sulphates (136) 

40. Preparation and properties of Hydrogen Sulphide. (138) 

41. Preparation and properties of Sulphides (139) 

42. Properties of Borax and Tests with Borax beads (143) and 
(144) 

43. Preparation and properties of Hydrofluoric Acid (152). 

44. Preparation and properties of Bromine and Iodine (153) and 
(156) 

45. Tests for free Iodine and Iodine in Iodides (157) and (158) 

46. Tests for Phosphoric Acid and Orthophosphates (159) b, and e. 



SCIENCE 83 



47. Tests for Arsenic by Marsh's or Gutzeit test (See other texts). 

48. Displacement of Metals (184) 

49. Aluminum Salts as Mordants (210) 

50. Properties and deportment of Ferrous and Ferric Compounds 
217, 218, 219) 

51. Qualitative analysis of a solution of Lead, Silver and Mer- 
curous Salts. (238) 

52. Fehling's Test for Sugar (106) and (107) 

53. Properties and Detection of Starch; also Conversion of Starch 
to Sugar (108) d, e., (123) and (124) 

54. Experiments with Acetic Acid and Vinegar (110), (111), (112). 

55. Testing Baking Powders (113) 

56. Tests for Proteins (118 A), (111 B) 

57. Preparation of Invert Sugar from Cane Sugar (121) 

58. Testing for Sugar in Vegetables and Fruits (122) 

59. Alcoholic Fermentation (127) 

60. Preparation and properties of Formaldehyde and Tests for 
Formaldehyde in Milk (128) 

Supplementary List of Experiments 

8 A, 8 D, 11, 16, 50, 221, 114 a, and c, 115C, 116c, 116 d. 



AGRICULTURE 



ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE— FIRST YEAR 



© 



EFORE each recitation the teacher should have thor- 
oughly in mind the main points to be taught and should 
have the necessary materials at hand. He should con- 
stantly remember that a simple experiment, well exe- 
cuted by the class or by himself in the presence of the class 
will teach a principle much more forcibly than a long discus- 
sion on his part with a textbook in his hand. 

The teacher who wishes to make a success can secure many 
free publications from the Department of Agriculture that 
will be extremely helpful. There are many excellent books 
bearing on different phases of agriculture which should be 
secured and placed in the teacher's library. Among the many 
books that would be helpful in teaching this subject are the 
following : 

Soils, by Lyon and Fippin ; Soils and Soil Fertility by Whit- 
son & Walster ; Southern Field Crops by Duggar ; a set of 
Year Books of the United States Department of Agriculture. 

At the beginning of the school year or before, all materials 
for the various exercises should be collected or arranged for. 
A certain number of field trips should be planned, and before 
each trip is made the teacher should go over the ground him- 
self and determine what observations should be made by the 
class. The teacher should enlist the interest of the farmers, 
should consult with them freely, and should arrange with 
them for the class to perform some experiment on their farms. 

Each pupil should have a note book in which to record all 
experiments and observations. This note book should be exam- 
ined once a week to see if the experiments and observations 
are properly recorded; and if they are not, the exercise should 
be repeated and reported again. 

The most effective way to teach agriculture is not to be a 
slave to any one textbook. It should be taught largely through 
laboratory exercises, excursions to fields and orchards and 
farms, and through the observation of plots and school gar- 



AGRICULTURE 85 



dens. Many class exercises may be made much more profit- 
able by having in the hands of the pupils or in the hands of 
the teacher the object under consideration, so that the words 
of the teacher will represent concrete objects. Children learn 
by eye and ear. 

The teacher need not follow the exact order of subjects as 
treated in the book. For example, he should feel free to begin 
with chapter IX, — The Plant as Related to the Soil, — turning 
back to the beginning after completing chapter XL Similarly 
any chapter in the text may be assigned for the lesson at the 
time when there is available the largest amount of material to 
illustrate that subject. 

In teaching the earlier chapters a shallow box, 12 x 16 x 14 
inches, filled with clean sand, will be useful as a soil-filled 
"flat" in which to root cuttings of figs, tomatoes, geraniums, 
coleus, and many other cuttings. 

All experiments described in the text should be performed 
and additional experiments may be selected from other texts 
and from Bulletin No. 408, Office of Experiment Stations, 
United States Department of Agriculture. 

In studying soils and particular crops the class with the 
teacher should make a field trip to study these subjects and to 
make a collection for further use in the classroom. 

Free use should be made of old tomato cans filled with soil 
as a means of showing best conditions for the germination of 
seeds and the growth of plants, and they may even be used for 
showing the effects of various fertilizers on the early growth 
of plants. 

Make a school garden, which is indispensible in the most 
effective teaching of agriculture. Besides the plots cared for 
by each pupil, a few plots on a larger scale may be cared for 
by the school as a whole, or by some class, — either to show 
results of several different treatments of soil or as a business 
enterprise. 

In general, practice in the selection of seed corn, cotton, 
etc., should be made, by permission, in the fields of nearby 
farmers. 

Encourage the formation of a Boys' Corn Club and of a 
Girls' Canning Club, and with this in view, correspond with the 
Extension Service of the Alabama Polytechnic Institute, Au- 
burn, Alabama. 



86 COUNTY HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL 

Make use of any suitable apparatus from the Chemical Lab- 
oratory. In addition, the following will be useful in teaching 
soils : 

One dozen student's lamp chimneys. 

One dozen glass tumblers, 

One set of soil sieves, preferably 20, 40. 60, 80, and 100 
meshes to the inch, 

One soil thermometer, 

Two dozen 5-inch flower pots, 

Samples in bottles of all fertilizers mentioned in the text. 

It will facilitate the work if specimens of crops and forage 
plants can be collected in advance, for example : 

Two or more plants of each of the leading types of cotton. 

Two or more bushels of corn for judging. 

Six or eight corn plants with the ears on them. 

Twelve or more plants of each of the following: Oats, 
wheat, vetch, clover, soy beans, cowpeas, sorghum. 

Before teaching those chapters of the elementary textbook 
that deal with animals, the teacher should read the paragraphs 
of this manual relative to animal husbandry ; likewise before 
teaching the horticultural chapter he should read the para- 
graphs relative to Horticulture, for the same principles apply 
in the elementary as in the more advanced teaching of these 
two subjects. 

HORTICULTURE— SECOND YEAR 

If time is limited, begin with Chapter X. p. 150, of Green's 
Popular Fruit Growing. 

Throughout the work let special attention be given to the 
reasons, or principles, on which all skillful practice rests. 

Instead of undertaking a study of all the classes of fruits, 
confine attention to from four to six important types adapted 
to Alabama conditions, viz : the apple, peach, grape, strawberry. 
In the southern part of the State the pecan and Satsuma 
orange may be advantageously included. 

Starting with the apple, Chapter XI, lay emphasis on the 
summer and fall varieties for ordinary conditions in Alabama. 
Emphasize the importance of the home orchard. 

To make the work as concrete as possible study trees and 
plants themselves, and the conditions surrounding them, which 



AGRICULTURE 87 



affect their behavior. Arrange to use for this purpose orch- 
ards in the neighborhood. Require the students to collect 
illustrative materials of various kinds. 

Have the students bring in lists of varieties, say of apples, 
growing at their homes or in their neighborhood, — also speci- 
mens of fruit when obtainable. Let them make notes on the 
ripening seasons and merits of the several varieties. Have 
them examine specimens as to typical form, size, color, excel- 
lence, or the presence of imperfections, such as fungus, spots, 
bruises, decay, irregularities of surface, worm holes, or San 
Jose Scale. 

Require the student to try to connect the effect with the cause 
by inquiring into the conditions under which the trees or 
orchards have been growing, character of soil, drainage, eleva- 
tion, crops previously grown on the land, care the trees have 
received in the way of pruning, tillage, spraying, and fertiliza- 
tion. 

Having found a number of factors possibly bearing on the 
success or unsatisfactory behavior of the trees or orchard, let 
the student search for the explanation, or a discussion of these 
limiting factors under Chapters I to VIII, and finally prepare 
a written report on the results of his findings, for reading and 
discussion in class. 

A similar plan may be followed in studying the other types 
of fruits mentioned. If specimens of fruits can be had, so 
much the better. This is not absolutely essential however. 
The subject of study is how to produce good fruit, rather than 
a study of fruits themselves. 

Let the subject studied be Horticulture, not a series of set 
lessons in the textbook. Observation of fruit trees, actual 
plantings, and other practical work should constitute an im- 
portant part of the teaching. This arouses a spirit of investi- 
gation and trains the student to help himself rather than to 
depend upon others. 

References : 

Bailey's Encyclopedia of Horticulture, New Edition. Macmillan 
Co., Atlanta, Ga. 

The Garden and Farm Rule Book, Bailey. Macmillan C©., At- 
lanta, Ga. 



88 COUNTY HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL 

Thomas' American Fruit Culturist, Wm. Wood & Sons, New 
York, N. Y. 

Bulletins of Experiment Stations; Special numbers of Farmers' 
Bulletins, United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, 
D. C. 

FIELD CROPS— THIRD YEAR 

In fulfillment of the required work in agriculture the teacher 
may select any one of the four following subjects: Field Crops, 
Poultry, Animal Husbandry, and Dairying. 

One of these subdivisions of agriculture is required in the first 
semester of the third year of the course for three periods per 
week. 

Text, "Southern Field Crops," by J. F. Duggar. 

In the new course of study the elementary text on agricul- 
ture used in the first year of the course treats of the principles 
of agriculture and devotes but few pages to any of the field 
crops. This makes it especially important that field crops, if 
taught at all, be thoroughly taught in the second year. 

The object in teaching this subject is to make the student 
acquainted with the principles on which the growing of each 
field crop depends and in addition to familiarize the pupil with 
some of the best practices in connection with each crop. 

The pupil who is already familiar on the practical side with 
crops can usually derive most profit from a systematic study 
of the subject because in this study he finds the explanation of 
many of the facts already more or less familiar to him. More- 
over, his presence is an advantage to the class and to the 
teacher because it serves to bring to the class reports on the 
practices that are considered best in the locality. These prac- 
tices may sometimes be more advisable than those mentioned 
in the book as typical. When this is the case, the teacher 
should encourage the pupils to analyze local conditions and to 
point out why the practices followed on the best farms in the 
neighborhood are better for the local conditions than those 
prevailing elsewhere. 

In other words, pupils should be encouraged to independence 
of thought and statement, no matter though this may seem 
to run counter to the results described in the text. 



AGRICULTURE 



In teaching field crops it is not essential that the order of 
subjects be exactly that in which they occur in the book. For 
example, when the time approaches for harvesting" corn and 
hence for selecting seed ears in the field, the teacher should 
immediately turn to the subjects most appropriate for the sea- 
son, especially Corn Breeding, or Improvement, Corn Har- 
vesting, and Corn Judging. If it is necessary to skip any sub- 
jects in order to give the instruction in the text at the same 
time that the laboratory practice can be given in the field, 
such subjects should be studied at a later date. 

Teachers should feel free to omit the subjects of tobacco, 
hemp, and cassava. 

The teacher should use discretion as to whether that part 
of the text printed in fine type should constitute a part of the 
subject on which the pupil is required to recite. 

Where there is any difficulty in covering all the ground in 
the time required, it is preferable to devote as much time as 
practicable to the laboratory exercises suggested at the end of 
each chapter, even if this should make it necessary to pass 
over rather hastily some of the fine print. 

One method of getting the most out of that part of the text 
printed in small type, without taxing the pupil's time for 
preparation is to make the fine print a subject chiefly for dis- 
cussion in class. 

In regard to the laboratory exercises it cannot be expected 
that every one of these will be feasible for each school. How- 
ever, the laboratory exercises should be considered an impor- 
tant part of the work and usually the results of laboratory 
work should be handed in as written reports. 

Before taking up each subject the teacher should write to 
the U. S. Dept. of Agriculture at Washington for any of its 
Farmers' Bulletins mentioned as available at the end of each 
chapter, and to the Experiment Stations for other pamphlets 
listed in the text. 



POULTRY 



Text, "Farm Poultry," by George C. Watson. 

Make the instruction as practical as possible. Make it 
apply to average farm conditions, rather than go into detail as 
to the methods and practices of the large poultry concerns. 



90 COUNTY HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL 

The four corner stones to successful poultry raising are : 

Good houses, properly located ; 

Good birds, carefully bred ; 

Good feed, skillfully fed ; 

The ability to hatch and rear chicks. 

After the types of poultry houses have been studied as to 
their shape, size, doors, windows, and methods of ventilation, 
it would be well to have the students make a model of an up-to- 
date poultry house in their manual training course. When 
locating a poultry house a great many things should be taken 
into consideration, such as soil, climate, size of farm, lay of 
the land, water supply, and shade. 

Do not spend a great deal of time taking up the separate 
breeds of poultry but show the differences between the three 
different types as the meat, egg-laying, and general-purpose 
types. Emphasize the importance of having well-bred fowls, 
uniform in size, shape and color, and possessing constitutional 
vigor. 

Take up the feeding of poultry in detail, showing why it is 
important, and why some feeds are better suited than others. 
Tell how often and at what times the feeding should be done, 
and why a great variety of feeds is desirable. 

If they can be obtained, an incubator and brooder would be 
a great help and a point of interest in teaching poultry work. 
Do not overfeed the young chicks. It is better to use dry 
feed for young chicks. Provide plenty of pure water. Em- 
phasize sanitary conditions in the rearing of the chicks. 

Spend the most of the time on chickens and comparatively 
little time on ducks, geese and turkeys. 

Prevention of disease is much easier than the curing of 
same. Keep in mind clean housing, clean feeding, clean yards, 
and clean birds, along with the four main points mentioned 
above. 

DAIRYING 

To get the best results from this work, interest must be 
aroused in the industry. This can best be done by an enthus- 
iastic summary of the opportunities in dairying and its advan- 
tages over other industries. The four factors making great 
opportunity in dairying are: Mild climate, luxuriant growth 



AGRICULTURE yi 



of all forage crops, cheap lands, and best markets for dairy 
products. The advantages of this industry over others should 
be emphasized and the following points noted and illustrated : 
Daily cash returns, providing a market for crops on the farm, 
building up the land, and enabling the boys and girls to help 
earn a living. It is also a business easily entered, that keeps 
the laborer busy the year round, and continues to bring in the 
cash -without selling the cows, as is necessary with beef cat- 
tle. A mere statement of these facts is not sufficient, and 
advantage must always be taken of opportunities for illustra- 
tion and demonstration. 

Dairy production, the first point to be considered in teach- 
ing dairying, is not treated in the adopted text. The necessity 
and the means of cheap production should be emphasized. 
Permanent pastures, leguminous crops, and silos will solve 
the feed problem. Better cows, secured by using a pure bred 
bull, raising the heifer calves from the best cows, and weeding 
out the poor producers, will aid in cheapening the cost of pro- 
duction. It is not expected that the dairy equipment will con- 
sist of much more than a Babcock testing outfit, a small barrel 
churn, and a few dairy utensils, but these should be used to 
best advantage by making trips out to neighboring farms, and 
starting herd record work by weighing the milk and testing it 
monthly for butterfat. 

But little time should be given History of Milk Tests, pages 
35-49, and only the first nine chapters of the book should be 
studied, with the exception of reading chapter 13 and pages 
245-6-7 of chapter 14, and a demonstration of Dutch cheese 
making, page 232. The teacher will find it a great help to 
have Dairy Cattle and Milk Production, by Eckles, and Ani- 
mal Husbandry for Schools, by Harper, which are published 
by The Macmillan Company, New York, N. Y. The follow- 
ing bulletins can be obtained upon request and every teacher 
of Dairying should have them : Judging Live Stock, Circular 
29, Indiana Experiment Station, Lafayette, Ind. ; Farmers' 
Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Washington, D. C, Nos. 
106, 267, 292, 578, 589, 413, 541 and 355. The Animal Hus- 
bandry Department, Auburn, Alabama, can also furnish you 
bulletins on Silos and Silage, Herd Record Work, Feeding 
and Managing Dairy Cattle, etc. 



»2 COUNTY HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL 

On the trips to the country, the construction and arrange- 
ment of the dairy building should be studied, questions asked 
of the Owner regarding the breed of cattle, feeding, care, etc., 
and if possible the weighing and testing of the milk should be 
taken up, thus giving practical demonstrations for the stu- 
dents in herd record work. On all such trips no adverse criti- 
cism should be made of the dairyman's methods, equipment, 
etc., for this can be discussed later. The impression should 
always be given the dairyman that the class is seeking informa- 
tion and not trying to give it. Too much time cannot be given 
this practical work of demonstrations and visits to the neigh- 
boring farms. The whole work should be to interest the pupils 
in this great industry, to show them better methods and means 
of bettering conditions in their own home communities. It is 
quite immaterial to the average student as to the chemistry of 
the non-volatile fats, etc., but the making of good butter, the 
production of clean milk, and the means of making good profits 
from the dairy business, are very vital to him. 

ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 

The text adopted for this work is rather extensive for the 
amount of time allowed for the instruction in this subject. The 
teacher must bear this in mind and not spend too much time 
in the study of the history of the various breeds of live stock, 
but devote considerable time to the study of each class of live 
stock as to the judging, the feeding, and the management. 

Take the class in Animal Husbandry to the neighboring 
farm where pure bred stock of various types and breeds can be 
studied. The instructor will make sure that the student is 
acquainted with all of the points of the animal before the work 
with the score card is undertaken. The score card system is 
an excellent one to accustom the student to examine the ani- 
mals in detail. After the student has scored at least two ani- 
mals in each class of live stock the comparative system of 
judging may then be adopted if enough animals are available 
for this type of judging. 

The instructor will find circular No. 29, Live Stock Judging 
for Beginners, Purdue University, LaFayette, Indiana, an 
excellent bulletin for suggestions as to the beginners' work. 
Every instructor should have a copy of this bulletin. 



AGRICULTURE 93 



In studying the feeding of each class of live stock it would 
be advisable to take the student to the feed lot and have him 
weigh out enough feed for an animal ; make out a list of feeds 
that the farmer has access to ; get the market value of these 
feeds at the feed store ; and then figure out the cost of each 
feed. 

For the management work, it would be advisable to study 
the types of barns, sheds, etc., used for the housing of the dif- 
ferent classes of animals and the care that the animals should 
receive. 

In visiting farms and stables to study these features it 
would be advisable for the student and instructor not to 
suggest too many ideas to the owners of the place, but reserve 
their opinions until the class has returned to the classroom. 
The visit to the farm should be in the nature of seeking infor- 
mation. If this system is followed the average live stock man 
will give a good many valuable suggestions to the class. 



HOME AND SCHOOL GARDENING 



e HARDENING must be given a definite place on the weekly 
program and full credit should be given for work done 
^jjjj^ in the garden at home as well as that required at school. 
The elementary text on agriculture, by Ferguson and 
Lewis, which is taught during the first semester to all first 
year pupils, will supply basal instruction for the four-year 
garden course. For reference the teacher should have a 
number of texts on school gardening and vegetable growing, 
and the school library should be supplied with all available 
bulletins on the subjects. 

Each school should have not less than one-half acre for 
garden purposes. One and one-half to two and one-half acres 
of land would afford a sufficient area for gardening, and sup- 
ply a minimum area for observation plots for teaching the 
agriculture in the course. If the land available is of small 
area, the garden should receive first consideration. In almost 
every case it will be found possible to rent a suitable area, con- 
venient to the school, for agricultural purposes. Frequently 
vacant lots will be loaned by the owners, if only the needs of 
the school are brought to their attention. It is much more 
satisfactory, however, to lease the land for a definite period. 

Garden work, embracing the growing of both vegetables 
and flowers, which is required of all pupils in all the grades, 
has fallen short of one of its chief purposes when the results 
of the work done at school are not felt in the homes of the 
pupils. It is, suggested therefore, that first year pupils be 
required to cultivate a variety of vegetables in the school 
garden, and encouraged to grow one crop or more in a portion 
of the home garden ; that the second year pupils be required 
to cultivate vegetables and flower gardens at school, and 
encouraged to plant a limited area to vegetables at home ; that 
the third and fourth year pupils be required to care for the 
lawn plots and shrubs at school as well as to grow vegetables. 
The girls should also be encouraged to cultivate flowers at 
home, and the boys to cultivate some one vegetable crop for 
commercial purposes. 



HOME AND SCHOOL GARDENING 95 

Let it be remembered that whereas work in the school gar- 
den is required of all the pupils, the growing of vegetables or 
flowers at home should be encouraged but never required. The 
teacher of gardening should put a premium on home work. 

Good results will be secured in those home gardens which 
are visited by the teacher. He should at all times remember 
that the growing of vegetables and flowers at school has as 
one of its chief objects the stimulating of the production of 
wholesome vegetables for the home table and the beautifying 
of the surroundings of the home. 

Garden work must never be assigned as punishment. It 
must have a place on the weekly program during school hours. 

LOCATION OF THE GARDEN 

Any well drained plot of ground near the school building, 
preferably on the school property, will provide a suitable loca- 
tion. If available land is not well drained, the teacher of agri- 
culture has a splendid opportunity for some practical lessons 
in drainage. 

FENCING 

The teacher should see that the garden is protected against 
the depredations of animals and especially chickens before any 
seed are planted. A fence built of chicken wire is a safe and 
cheap protection. On one or both sides of the fence some 
kind of hedge, for example Amoor River privet, should be 
planted. In a short time, such a hedge will give the garden 
a beautiful setting as well as splendid protection. 

PREPARATION OF THE SOIL 

The preparation of the soil is such an important factor 
that it has been well said, "Any crop is half made before it is 
planted." Thorough prepartion of the soil is, therefore, rec- 
ommended as absolutely essential to successful gardening. 

In breaking the land turn it from one-fourth to one-third 
deeper than it has been plowed before and follow in the fur- 
row with a sub-soiler or scooter point, breaking the sub-soil 
several inches deeper. This gives depth of soil and provides 
a reservoir to hold water during drv seasons. 



96 COUNTY HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL 

In case the land which is to be used for garden purposes 
is a fallow, or new ground or a very poor piece of soil devoid 
of vegetable matter, it is desirable to turn it early in the fall 
and sow to some cover crop. Turn the land in early spring 
and put in the best possible state of cultivation for the vege- 
table crop. 

In extreme cases it may be well during the summer to fol- 
low the above mentioned crop with some nitrogen gathering 
crop, and in this way lay a good foundation for successful 
work. Under such circumstances it would be advisable to rent 
a garden plot temporarily. The first effort at gardening must 
not be a failure, hence the above precaution. 

REFERENCES ON SOIL PREPARATION 

Agriculture for Southern Schools by Duggar, Section XII, 
pp. 70-73 ; Elementary Principles of Agriculture by Ferguson 
and Lewis, Chapter IX, pp. 40-51 ; Gardens and Their Mean- 
ings by Williams, Chapter III, pp. 45-60; Farmers' Bulle- 
tins Nos. 20, 77, 44, 245, 257, 406, 266, 421, and 192 ; Circu- 
lar No. 154, of the University of Illinois., Urbana, Illinois. 

TOOLS 

In order that each pupil may be provided with an ideal equip- 
ment of tools, he should have a garden fork, rake, hoe, 100 
foot cord, tape line, and trowel. However, if only a limited 
number can be had, the tools purchased may be used in com- 
mon and at least one or two of those just mentioned dispensed 
with entirely. Provide a place for the tools and see that the} 
are kept, under lock, in that place. 

ROTATION OF CROPS 

It is possible to grow a succession of crops, thereby keeping 
the garden green and supplying the home table with whole- 
some vegetables during the entire year. Circular No. 14, 
Parts I and II, entitled Vegetable Growing in Alabama, may 
be had by applying to the Director of the Experiment Sta- 
tion at Auburn, Alabama. This circular gives valuable in- 
formation on the growing of vegetables, and shows in tabu- 
lated form the planting and maturing season of each. 



HOME AND SCHOOL GARDENING 97 

HOT BEDS AND COLD FRAMES 

Every school garden should have one or more hot beds 
and cold frames for growing winter crops of tender vegetables 
and securing early plants for the spring garden. No garden 
is complete without them. The construction of the frames 
and making of the beds are fully described in the above men- 
tioned Circular, No. 14. 

FERTILIZERS AND PLANT DISEASES 

These topics are also fully discussed in Circular, No. 1-t. In 
writing for this circular be certain to ask for both Part I and 
Part II. 

Other references on the three topics just named are: Cir- 
cular 13, School Gardening, Experiment Station, Auburn, Ala- 
bama ; Bulletin No. 0, Vol. 33, Whole Number 174, Truck 
Crowing in North Carolina. Department of Agriculture, Ral- 
eigh, North Carolina; Farmers' Vegetable Garden, Bulletin No. 
10.~), University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois. 

THE SUMMER GARDEN 

It is important that the school garden be cared for during 
the vacation period. In planning the succession of crops, pro- 
vision should be made for the planting of some staple vege- 
table in the garden just as soon as the early vegetables are 
gathered. 

If tomato plants are set out on each plot as the various vege- 
table crops are gathered, the garden will be kept green during 
the summer and provide a fine lot of fruit, which may be sold 
fresh or canned. This plan would enable the teacher to organ- 
ize a high school tomato club and in a year or two open up a 
profitable industry for the girls of the school, which if con- 
ducted along business lines would spread throughout the 
county. Alabama is buying from other states entirely too 
many cans of tomatoes, beans, corn, okra, sweet potatoes, and 
fruits of various kinds. The county high schools have a great 
opportunity to encourage the home-canning industry through 
the garden activities of the school. 

The principal will find it possible to have the summer garden 
cultivated and the vegetables marketed by industrious school 

4HS 



98 COUNTY HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL 

boys, who should be compensated with a part of the profits. 
The balance should be deposited in the bank as a fund for 
equipping the gardeners with tools. 

EXHIBITS AND PRIZES 

A day during commencement may be designated as Agricul- 
tural Day. On such an occasion have the pupils' exhibits of 
garden and home products in the school building. The invited 
friends and patrons may then be taken to visit the school and 
home garden plots of the prize-winning pupils. 

Prizes should be provided for the successful gardeners. 

AN IDEAL GARDEN PLAN 

That school garden which provides room for the growing 
of vegetables, flowers, economic crops, and has in it a teacher's 
laboratory for growing cuttings of various kinds, and seedlings 
for the purpose of teaching the principles of budding and 
grafting, as well as a space for the growing of lawn grasses, 
is fulfilling its full mission. Such a garden area might contain 
a communal flower and vegetable garden to accommodate those 
for whom individual plots cannot be provided. Individual 
garden plots have an advantage over the row-to-the-pupil 
method of gardening, though the latter plan is practised by a 
number of experienced gardeners. The communal gardens 
should be cultivated by the row method. 

Where water is available it should be supplied to the garden. 
Two or three hydrants conveniently located would aid mate- 
rially when water is needed for young plants and also during 
excessive dry seasons. The lack of a water supply should not 
prove a too serious handicap for gardening. 

SUGGESTED DIMENSIONS 

Individual gardens 8 feet by 10 feet are workable, though 
a larger garden is preferable. When it becomes necessary to 
give a smaller space to the pupil, it is suggested that a double 
space be given two pupils, who shall work the plot coopera- 
tively. Remember that cultivating intensively enables one to 
grow many vegetables on a small space. 



HOME AND SCHOOL GARDENING 99 

The walks surrounding the plots should be at least two 
feet wide, and the main walk not less than five feet. Plots 
should not be thrown up as ridges, nor should the walks be 
excavated. Cultivate the plots on the level and the walks will 
be lowered by the footsteps of the pupils. 

PLANNING AND PLOTTING 

Planning should be begun before the soil is broken. A suc- 
cessful garden must first take form in the teacher's mind, 
then on paper, being drawn to a scale, and then accurately 
plotted on the ground in miniature. When the pupils have an 
accurate idea of what the garden means, and some mental 
conception of the work before them, the teacher is ready for 
a successful development of the garden. 

PUBLICATIONS ON VEGETABLE AND FLOWER 
GARDENING 

(Prices may be had by writing direct to publishers.) 

1. The Principles of Vegetable Gardening — Bailey. The Macmil- 
lan Co., Atlanta, Georgia. 

2. Vegetable Gardening — Green. Webb Publishing Co., St. Paul, 
Minn. 

3. The Beginners Garden Book — French. The Macmillan Co., At- 
lanta, Georgia. 

4. Garden Making- — Bailey. The Macmillan Co., Atlanta, Georgia. 

5. School and Home Gardens — W. H. D. Meier. Ginn and Com- 
pany, Atlanta, Georgia. 

6. Gardens and Their Meaning — Dura Williams. Ginn and Com- 
pany, Atlanta, Georgia. 

7. The Amateur's Practical Garden Book — Bailey and Hunn. 

8. The Garden and Its Accessions — Loring Underwood. Little, 
Little, Brown & Company, 254 Washington St., Boston, Mass. 

Bulletins Which May Be Had on Request 

(The following Farmers' Bulletins may be had by applying to 
your Congressman.) 

The Home Fruit Garden — Preparation and Care, Farmers' Bul- 
letin No. 154. 



100 COUNTY HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL 



The School Garden— Farmers' Bulletin No. 218. 
Tomatoes — Farmers' Bulletin No. 220. 

Schools Gardens, Bulletin No. 160. Office of Experiment Sta- 
tion. 

The Following Bulletins May be Had Without Cost by Applying to 
Addresses Given. 

Vegetable Gardening, Vol II, No. 33, Garden Series. Cornell 
Reading Courses, Ithaca, N. Y. 

Children's Home and School Gardening, Vol I, No. 4, Extension 
Bulletin, Rhode Island State College of Agriculture, Kinston, R. I. 

Elementary Agriculture and School Gardening at Winthrop, Bul- 
letin No. 4. Vol. III. Winthrop College, Rock Hill, S. C. 

Vegetable Growing in Alabama, Circular No. 14, Parts I and II. 
P. P. Williams and H. M. Conolly, Auburn, Alabama. 

School Gardens, Report of the Fairview School Association for 
1910. Fairview Garden School Association ( Yonkers, N. Y. 

The Farmers' Home Garden, Bulletin No. 122. Agricultural Ex- 
periment Station, Morgantown, W. Va. 

Industrial Contests for Minnesota Boys and Girls — 1910. Ex. 
Bulletin No. 3. University Farm, St. Paul, Minnesota. 

The Flower Garden, Vol. II, No. 35. Cornell Reading Course, 
Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. 

Window Gardening, by H. D. Hemenway, Department Pamphlet 
No. 1. American Civic Association, N. American Bldg., Philadel- 
phia, Pa. 



HISTORY 



J^s ( )DAY we insist that all education shall he, in a broad 
\*S sense, useful. We endeavor to give our boys and girls 
the training that will best fit them to perform their 
share in the various activities that make up what we 
call life. Before giving any subject a place in our course of 
study we try to ascertain whether it is of real value in pro- 
moting this end. It is, therefore, perfectly natural both for 
teacher and for pupil to ask at once the question. 

WHAT IS THE USE OF HISTORY? 

Many answers may he given. We mention the following : 

1. It prepares for citizenship. 

Certainly the State can have no higher purpose in educating 
its youth than to train them to be good citizens, able to trace 
clearly their duties and inspired with a fixed purpose to per- 
form them. Xow the study of history can, and should, help 
to do this. It shows how men have step by step worked out a 
clearer vision of what these duties are, and it arouses a natural 
interest in public affairs by telling the story of men who have 
become great by giving themselves to the service of their coun- 
try. 

2. It gives the background for other things. 

Not one of man's greatest achievements can be understood 
without reference to its environment. Shakespeare can not he- 
separated from the age of Elizabeth. Martin Luther was a 
part of the times in which he lived. The pyramids would never 
have been built in Greece, nor the Parthenon in Egypt, nor a 
Gothic cathedral in ancient Rome. Whatever has been done, 
not only in literature, art, and science, but also in government. 
in business, in every day affairs, has grown out of conditions 
that went before and has been colored by the circumstances 
of the time. Nothing of importance, therefore, in life can be 
well understood without some knowledge of History. 



102 COUNTY HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL 

3. It explains the present. 

The great men that interest us most are those of our own 
day. The great movements that concern us most are those 
going on now. The great problems that touch us most are 
those of the present. Yet it is impossible to follow these 
intelligently, or even to read about them understandingly in 
the newspapers, without some knowledge of their history. 
Nearly every important public question of today has its roots 
in the affairs of yesterday. Our present civilization in all its 
complexity is but a development from conditions that grew up 
in the past. Who can understand without some knowledge of 
history the negro question in the South, or the Monroe Doc- 
trine, or the Irish question, or the doctrine of State Rights? 

4. Other answers. 

The three reasons that have just been given for the study 
of history are only examples of the many that may be given. 
Every teacher can easily add to the list, and so can the pupils 
as they grow familiar with the study itself. It will be found 
an interesting and profitable exercise, especially at the close of 
well rounded periods, for the teacher and the class to cooper- 
ate in making a list of the useful things that have been learned 
and the practical benefits that have been derived from the 
work up to that point. 

If a knowledge of history be useful, the next question that 
naturally arises is : 

HOW SHOULD IT BE TAUGHT? 

This is not an easy question to answer. Indeed the answer 
will vary with the personality of the teacher and of the pupil. 
One teacher can use successfully a method that fails in the 
hands of another; and every one knows that plans that work 
well with one class sometimes fail dismally with another. We 
can only make a few suggestions. 

1. Too much should not be attempted. 

The great difficulty in History, especially to a beginner, is 
its complexity. The teacher should remember this and try to 
keep the work simple and clear. Many things are put in the 
book only to serve as a background for the really important 
things. These should be kept in their place and not brought 



HISTORY 103 

forward to confuse the pupil's mind and burden his memory. 
It should be understood from the first that a high school 
course can teach only the essentials. If this is done, the 
students will get a clear outline, which can be filled in later in 
life, as opportunity arises. Otherwise they will get only a 
confused jumble of disconnected details, and an overwhelming 
distaste for history that future reading can scarcely overcome. 

2. Progress is helped by grouping things. 

The important things should be learned first. Whatever 
smaller things are necessary can be grouped about them. Many 
names and events that are too small to be remembered alone 
can be so associated with other greater ones, that when men- 
tioned afterwards they are easily located and identified and 
can be found promptly for further study if the occasion arises. 
In this way the pupil acquires control over a mass of informa- 
tion that he can not carry in his memory. 

3. Comparison helps the perception and the memory. 

The characteristics of nations are best brought out in this 
way. Athens and Sparta are understood more easily when 
they are contrasted. Their struggle may later be compared 
with that of Rome and Carthage. The same process may be 
applied to the great men of history, as was done so admirably 
by Plutarch. Caesar recalls Alexander, Cicero, Demosthenes. 
The application becomes still more absorbing when ancient and 
modern men are brought together, as Napoleon and Caesar, 
Louis XIV and Pericles. In the same manner great move- 
ments grow clearer by contrast, as the crusades and the 
Mohammedan invasion of the West. This method not only 
gives a better understanding of the things compared, but it 
fastens both in the memory, and keeps the student from for- 
getting today what he learned yesterday. 

4. Certain practical points should be kept in mind. 

The teacher should bear in mind the age and experience of 
the students. He can not require such intensive study of the 
subject from first year pupils as he can from those in their 
fourth year. 

He should not let the pupils feel that the lesson is a mere 
routine of so many pages. They must be made to see that each 



104 COUNTY HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL 

lesson contains an account of certain specific things, which 
are to be understood rather than memorized. 

When assigning a new lesson, the teacher must know de- 
finitely what it contains, and should take the time to tell the 
class in advance what to do with it and how to do it. 

When several lessons have been required to complete tlu 
stud\ of a movement, it is well, before passing from it, to 
review it as a whole, so that the students may learn in a con- 
nected way what the movement means, its causes, its incidents, 
and its results. 

The stud)- of history should be constantly accompanied by 
the study of the geography involved. This will explain as noth- 
ing else can the reason for many events. Locating a place on a 
map makes the incident connected with it seem more real and 
serves to hx it in the mind. Outline maps are very useful for 
this purpose and can be obtained from almost any large pub- 
lisher of school books. 

No great amount of outside reading can be done by high 
school classes, but some opportunity ought to be offered to 
tin isc pupils who have the time for it and the ambition to do 
it. The books chosen should be easy reading and simple. To 
give a boy who is just getting a taste for such reading a hard 
and puzzling book is to destroy what might otherwise become 
a useful habit. It is often wise to have several copies of one 
good book, rather than other books not so well adapted to the 
special need. 

The stud\- i if recent, even of current history should be 
encouraged. To the beginner its usefulness is most obvious 
and its appeal is therefore greater. It is in immediate con- 
tact with the pupil's daily life and there are a thousand ways 
by which it may be made interesting. 

The history teacher may often make an alliance with the 
teacher of English, so that English themes may be written on 
historical topics, thus combining their armies against the forces 
if ignorance. 

- The number of dates required should be reduced to a mini- 
mum. One good date, well chosen and occupying on the page 
of history a strategic position, will fix with sufficient definite- 
ness the time of many events. A dozen dates ought to be 
enough for the history of our own country, a like number for 
the history of England. Possibly double that number would 



HISTORY 105 

do for the General History of Europe. It is a fascinating- 
occupation to pick out the best ones. A contest might be 
started in the class to determine the best ones for any given 
country or period. 

To the beginner the strange names in the history of a for- 
eign country present great difficulty. It is a good plan to 
require only the most important, and to pronounce these over 
in advance and again and again during the recitation. They 
might be written day by day on a large piece of paper and put 
in a conspicuous place on the wall. Every day they can be hur- 
riedly reviewed, some question being asked about each. 

Many teachers of history find it helpful to exchange ideas 
with others who are working in the same field. To facilitate 
this exchange the Alabama Association of History Teachers 
was organized last spring in Birmingham as a branch of the 
Alabama Educational Association. Membership in it is at 
present free, and all teachers of history in our State are re- 
quested to send their names and addresses either to its Presi- 
dent, Dr. George Petrie, at Auburn, or to its Secretary, Pro- 
fessor D. G. Chase, at the Birmingham High School. In this 
way they will receive whatever circulars the association may 
send out from time to time. 

Other suggestions can be made most conveniently under the 
head of each year's work. 

GENERAL HISTORY—FIRST YEAR 

The teacher should remember that, in spite of the work done 
in the lower grades, this is really the pupil's introduction to a 
more serious study of history. To him it often seems very 
new and big and strange. It is no time for just "hearing the 
lesson," but a time for earnest cooperation, a time for finding- 
out what difficulties each pupil is having and for helping him 
overcome them. The teacher must interpret history in terms 
that the pupil will understand, and at the same time lead him 
graduallv to view things from the new historical standpoint. 
The conception of things that happen about him as an orderly 
growth out of the past is a novel one to him, and can not be 
acquired without patience and help. Success in this depends 
more on the teacher than on the pupil. 

It is often well to spend a day or two talking informally to 
the class in a very simple way about the main divisions of 



106 COUNTY HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL 

General History, showing on a map where a few of the most 
important countries are, as one would do for a party of young 
people whom he was about to take for a trip abroad. Five 
minutes a day at the beginning of the recitation might be well 
given to this map drill for two or three weeks. It will soon 
become interesting, if done in a spirited manner, and will lay 
the geographical foundation for the whole course. Then pro- 
ceed to 

I. Ancient History. 

Here again the same process should be repeated. The main 
divisions should be pointed out, and the countries involved 
studied on the map, with a daily review of the names of im- 
portant places, of the striking physical features, and the rela- 
tion of one country to another, never relying on the student's 
memory, but constantly reinforcing it by review. The purpose 
of the recitation is not to torture out of his mind the few 
things he may have stored there, but to put something new in 
it every day and to fasten in it what is growing dim and uncer- 
tain. 

1. The Oriental Countries often seem especially hard to 
the young student. This is sometimes because the teacher in- 
sists on too many things being memorized. Very little atten- 
tion should be paid to the names of men, or to the precise dates 
of events. The only importance of the dates in this period is 
to give some idea of the remoteness of beginnings and of the 
order in which a few of the great events occurred. Emphasis 
should be laid on the distinguishing features of life and so- 
ciety in the different countries and on the contribution of each 
to our civilization and its influence on other nations. So far as 
possible the teacher should show clearly and often that Assyria, 
Babylonia, Phoenicia, and Egypt are not entirely separate 
nations, but parts of the whole stream of history, each in turn 
influencing its current. The importance of the Nile valley 
should be pointed out and its peculiar influence on Egyptian 
history. In like manner the effect of the Tigris-Euphrates 
valley should be kept in mind when studying the history of 
Assyria and Babylon. And the influence of the Oriental na- 
tions on Greece and Rome can be understood only when one 
realizes that the Mediterranean sea was a great highway for 
commerce and other intercourse. 



HISTORY 107 

The method of comparison can be used to advantage to 
bring out the peculiarities of these nations and countries, as, for 
example, Assyria may be com] tared with Babylon as to its 
location, its extent, its duration, its government, its art, its 
religion. The Hebrews may be compared with their neighbors, 
the Phoenicians, as to their antiquity, their religion, their gov- 
ernment, their commerce, their influence on our civilization. 

At some time during the study of these ancient nations the 
teacher should make clear how it is that we have a record of 
these times at all, and how we are able to interpret their in- 
scriptions. A stimulating account can be given of the work of 
excavation that has been carried on in these countries in recent 
years and of the men who have done most in it. 

2. The history of Greece should also be begun by an infor- 
mal talk with a map at hand. In this the teacher should point 
out very simply the course of this history, omitting all details 
and calling attention only to the half-a-dozen big movements. 
Sparta, Athens, Thebes, Macedonia, the Aegean Isles, the 
Greek countries in Asia Minor must all be clearly located. 
Every day these locations should be briefly reviewed and some 
new point added. The influence of geography should be 
pointed out, and it can be driven home by a comparison of 
Greece and Egypt. No other countries show this influence so 
beautifully. It can be, and should be, traced at every step. 

The development of Athens and of Sparta should be traced, 
contrasting them so as to bring out the fact that they were 
two distinct types. Later their similar features should be 
pointed out, so that they may appear also as common mem- 
bers of the Greek race. 

The greatest emphasis should be placed on the history of 
Athens. To us Greece means Athens. Every effort should 
be made to show the modernness of life there. Its literature, 
its art, its democratic ideas and government should be dwelt 
on at length. The teacher should also point out the difference 
between Athenian democracy and modern democracy, tracing 
the development of this government, and the cause of its down- 
fall. 

The fact should be insisted on that Greece remained a col- 
lection of city-governments. Its internal history is a constant 
struggle on the part of Sparta, Athens, and Thebes for leader- 
ship. An effort should be made to explain the reasons for this. 



108 COUNTY HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL 



and to show that it resulted in the conquest of Greece proper 
by Macedonia, and later in the subjection of both to Rome. 

The relation of Greece to the eastern nations should be con- 
stantly followed during the early period, during the Persian 
wars, during the war between Athens and Sparta, during the 
marvelous career of Alexander the Great. On the other hand 
its influence on Rome is equally important. 

The deeds of Alexander afford an excellent opportunity to 
review from time to time points in the history of the East. 
1 lis achievements should be studied not merely as a thrilling 
conquest of the world, but also as a movement that spread 
Greek civilization and the Greek language over the Eastern 
lands, thus preparing the way for the spread of Christianity 
later on. A word may be said about the remarkable perma- 
nence of this Greek influence over the East, explaining that it 
kept that half of the later Roman empire permanently dis- 
tinct from the Western or Roman half. On the other hand its 
limitations may be suggested by calling attention to the fact 
that when Alexander's empire broke up, the breaks came along 
the old lines of national cleavage. 

A careful study should be made of chapter IV, of the text- 
book, so as to understand just what is meant by Greek civili- 
zation. 

3. The history of Rome gives an opportunity to study the 
effect of geography less intensively than does the history of 
Greece, but far more extensively. Indeed its history covers 
step by step all the geography of the ancient world. It there- 
fore reviews what we have already learned, and adds the rest 
gradually so that we may absorb it gradually. It is a story of 
conquest, the steps of which should be made perfectly familiar 
to the student: first. Italy, central. Northern, and Southern 
parts ; then Carthage and the West ; then Greece ; then the 
East; finally the North. This conquest may well be contrasted 
with that of Alexander, as to its causes, its thoroughness, the 
time it took, the results. 

Behind all this military phase, the internal struggles of the 
Roman people must be followed in broad outline. They are 
too intricate for the school boy to understand fully. But he 
can be taught to trace the rise of the Plebeians and the develop- 
ment of a great mass of dissatisfied poor who gave an oppor- 
tunity to so many ambitious leaders and an insoluble problem 



HISTORY 109 



to so many puzzled statesmen. The attempt to draw the line 
between these two kinds of public men at Rome will afford an 
unfailing- source of lively debate and may be made to lead to 
outside reading in a natural manner. 

The rise and nature of the empire should be carefully studied. 
Many boys will be interested by a comparison of the problems 
of that day with our own, especially of those that touch on 
foreign dominions, class distinctions, and the concentration of 
wealth. 

The history of the empire is far more difficult than is usually 
supposed. To view it as little more than a series of biograph- 
ies of good and bad emperors is a farce. A few of them did 
mark epochs in its development, as for example, Augustus its 
founder, Constantine under whom it became officially Chris- 
tianized, Diocletian under whom the natural division into East 
and West was formally recognized, and Justinian who in many 
ways revived its glory. Yet behind the scenes went on other 
movements of real importance also, the development of the 
Roman system of governing the world, the growth of interna- 
tional law with its codes, the equally important growth of 
international trade and its magnificent roads, the much ex- 
plained decay of the Roman vigor, the penetration of the Ger- 
mans into many fields of Roman service, until the Roman world 
gradually became a Germanized world. These are all deep 
topics. They can not be entirely ignored, but they must be 
touched lightly and as simply as possible. The teacher may 
well remember that often a young person finds the easiest 
approach to a difficult idea by means of a concrete incident, 
or through some dramatic situation, or by a picture. The 
Riblical accounts of Pilate and Felix and Cicero's denuncia- 
tion of Yerres give great vividness to certain phases of Roman 
provincial government, and lead to questions about other 
phases of that very intricate problem. A photograph of a 
Roman aqueduct or a Roman road will do more to suggest 
the tremendous material power of the empire than all the books 
in the world. 

1 1. Medieval History. 

The teacher and the class who have safely made their way 
through ancient history need have no fear of the medieval 
period. This is true not because it is easier, but because the 



110 COUNTY HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL 

difficulties are in the main the same and can be overcome by 
the same methods, and because the process is now less new 
and strange. Only a few suggestions are therefore neces- 
sary. 

1. The period has no sharp beginning and no definite end. It 
begins with the gradual mixture of the primitive German civili- 
zation with the exhausted Roman. The so-called dark ages 
are the period during which this child and this old man hand 
in hand are groping their way toward a new order. 

2. The institution about which this new order soon began to 
crystallize was feudalism. This should be studied carefully, as 
it is the dominant form of government during the middle ages. 

3. The rise of nationalities must be watched, their location 
fixed and their progress and growth followed. 

4. The crusades can hardly be overemphasized. Directly or 
indirectly they are connected with almost all that follows. 

5. The revival of learning, the reformation in religious mat- 
ters, and the revolution in political government that burst out 
first in France, all represent the same tendencies in different 
fields and their coming marks the passing of the middle ages. 

III. Modern History. 

While the difficulties met are in general the same as those 
already encountered in ancient and in medieval history and 
can be met in the same way, the following special points may 
be noted : 

1. An increasing emphasis will naturally be laid on the re- 
sults of events. More than in any previous period past occur- 
rences will be seen to affect the world in which we now live. 
A special effort should be made to show the pupil how things 
about him today have grown out of what went before. Now is 
the time for him to acquire the historical standpoint, which 
regards everything as a growth or development. 

2. Newspapers and magazines can now be used to stimulate 
an interest in the work. One of the most effective methods is 
to call attention to a news item in regard to an incident abroad, 
and then to. ask for all the light that modern history can throw 
on the situation. Such problems may be assigned over night 
and the textbook may be used in the solution. 

3. If possible, more time should be given to this period than 
to any other, because of its great practical importance. 



HISTORY 111 

4. In almost every community some one lives who has been 
abroad and who can be persuaded to talk about some city or 
country, or may be willing to be interviewed by the pupils. 

ENGLISH HISTORY— SECOND YEAR 

The study of English history should serve a three-fold pur- 
pose : first, to gain a knowledge of the development of Eng- 
land itself; second, to trace the connection of that development 
with the history of other countries in Europe ; third, to lay the 
foundation for a study of our own country's history. In regard 
to each of these a word may be said. 

I. England's own history. 

No other country of Europe has a history that combines so 
many elements of interest and importance. 

1. It is one of the longest. Therefore it gives time to trace 
the full working of cause and effect and the gradual develop- 
ment of institutions. 

2. It has during a long period been free from invasion and 
conquest. Therefore its people have been able to work out 
their own problems undisturbed by forcible interference from 
abroad. 

3. The English nation has shown a genius for government 
at least unequalled since the fall of Rome and a love of free- 
dom never before combined with it. These two talents have 
made its history the great field for the development of constitu- 
tional liberty. 

4. The English have not only, like the Greeks, shown an 
original and creative genius and contributed largely to the civi- 
lization of the world ; but they have also, like the Romans, 
shown their practical ability to build up a great and lasting 
nation and empire. 

II. England's relation to Europe. 

In spite of England's comparative safety from invasion and 
conquest, its history nevertheless is from time to time closely 
woven in with that of the continent. This relation must be 
carefully traced, and the process will afford an excellent op- 
portunity to review the history of Europe. The following 
points should be noted : 



112 COUNTY HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL 



1. Many movements in England are but local manifesta- 
itons of general movements that swept over all Europe. This 
statement applies to the rise and fall of feudalism, the cru- 
sades, the revival of learning, the reformation, and the impulse 
toward discovery and colonization. 

2. If possible the pupils should have access to several copies 
of the general history that they studied the previous year, and 
should be made to refer to them when studying these topics. 

3. The point should be insisted on that England has not 
only been affected by general movements that touched all Eu- 
rope, but has itself greatly affected the course of European 
history. This can be clearly shown in regard to wars, govern- 
ment, religion, literature, commerce, manufacturing explora- 
tion, settlement, and conquest. 

4. No history of England is complete that does not trace 
the rise and spread of the wonderful, complex, and indescrib- 
able thing which, for want of a better word, we call the British 
Empire. 

TIL England the Background for our own history. 

A fair knowledge of English history is absolutely essential 
as a preparation for the study of American history. This is 
true for many reasons. The following may be mentioned. 

1. So closely is our colonial history connected with the 
progress of affairs in England that some writers prefer to treat 
it a- a part of the history of that country rather than as an 
early chapter in our own. In fact it should lie a part of both 

2. Main- of the fundamental ideas that have'played so large 
a part in our development are really in origin English ideas, 
more or less modified to suit conditions here. These can not 
be properly understood without some knowledge of their rise 
and progress in the old country. 

3. Time and again England has played a more or less con- 
spicuous part in our history. This was true in the War of the 
Revolution, in the War of 1812, during the Napoleonic period, 
during the turmoil over Texas and ( )regon, during the Civil 
War, and at other times that could be easily mentioned. 

1. Now that we have acquired distant possessions and have 
become a world power, we are brought into more direct con- 
tact with the r.ritish Empire, and its history will be more im- 
portant than ever to Americans who wish to understand its 
attitude on international questions. 



HISTORY 113 



AMERICAN HISTORY— THIRD YEAR 

Every one who has taught the history of the United States 
in the seventh oracle has realized that there are a great many 
things, important and interesting- in themselves, that are beyond 
the comprehension of his pupils. Now is the time to teach 
many of those things. The high school course should not he 
a mere repetition of work done before. Of course what was 
done before may now be reviewed when the occasion arises, 
but it should be viewed from a broader standpoint, and fresh 
topics should be taken up. The pupil now has had two years 
of good training and the work of this year ought to be the 
best of his whole course. A few suggestions may help to make 
it so. 

1. This year's work deals with things that concern him more 
closely and obviously than any that he has yet studied. Its 
usefulness should be made as clear as possible. 

2. No one ought to finish his course in the history of his 
own country without getting a better idea of good citizenship 
and some stimulus toward public service. 

3. For lack of time colonial and military history, which are 
usually studied with some fullness in the lower grades, should 
be given a subordinate place. 

4. Emphasis should be laid on our constitutional develop- 
ment, so that the pupil may understand the structure of his 
country and how it came to be what it is. This is necessary 
if he would lie an intelligent citizen, taking his share in public 
affairs. 

5. ("reat emphasis should he laid on the industrial and eco- 
nomic side. We are now beginning to realize the tremendous 
effect that this side has had, and the importance of an under- 
standing of it. 

(i. A constant attempt should he made to preserve an impar- 
tial attitude on disputed points. An historian should learn to 
present his own views without bitterness or unfairness toward 
those who differ from him. 

7. In connection with textbook work some local research 
can usually be carried on to advantage. It gives variety. 
arouses an interest, and gives the pupils some idea of the way 
in which material for history is gathered. 




LATIN 



HE beginning book adopted by the State of Alabama 
is a most delightful book to teach. Our aim in this 
manual is to make a few suggestions to the young and 
inexperienced teacher of Latin. 

PRONUNCIATION 

Teach the Roman Method and be sure that you understand 
it. The pronunciation is fixed the first year and it is just as 
easy to get it right as wrong. Why not get it right ? If you do 
not know it yourself, go to some one who does and get it or 
else do not try to teach Latin. An accurate pronunciation re- 
quires that long vowels be given twice the time given to short 
vowels, whether accented or not. It is easy to distinguish in 
quality between long and short vowels, especially as our adopted 
book marks the long vowels. 

LONG VOWELS 

Pupils should daily write out the declensions of nouns on the 
board and mark the long vowels. 

Never let a pupil write an English sentence into Latin with- 
out marking the long vowels. 

Continue this method with the declension of the adjective 
and the pronoun. 

VOCABULARIES 

How can a person learn a foreign language without knowing 
the meaning of the words in that language? Do you want to 
make Latin comparatively easy to your pupils? Well, then, 
there is but one way : Teach thoroughly each lesson before 
you enter the next succeeding one. Require your pupils not 
only to learn the vocabularies thoroughly, but in hearing the 
vocabulary do not always ask for the nominative case, but call 
for the accusative plural, accusative singular, — first one case 



LATIN 115 

and then another; or, in other words, drill, drill, drill. The 
teacher who cannot stand the drudgery of drill and daily 
reviews ought to get out of the schoolroom. 

DECLENSIONS 

Never let a pupil get into the second declension before he 
knows instantly every case in the first. It is not sufficient to 
decline the word ; he must know the case from the ending the 
minute he sees it. Master thoroughly the second declension 
before trying the third. The pupil who enters the third de- 
clension before he knows the second, soon becomes disgusted 
with Latin and in a few weeks drifts out of the class. The 
third declension is the hardest of all. The subject of gender 
is troublesome. Have your pupils make a list of all mascu- 
line, feminine and neuter nouns, three columns in a note book. 
Call upon one person to name all masculine nouns of the third 
declension, another the feminine, another the neuter, giving in 
each case the meaning. Continue this method with the fourth 
and fifth declensions. 

CONJUGATIONS OF VERBS 

What we have said about declensions applies equally to the 
conjugations. Never enter the second conjugation before your 
pupils know thoroughly the first. Require the indicative active 
first and do not think of the passive until your pupils know 
the active. It is not sufficient to inflect the tense. He must 
know all the endings of the tense the moment he sees them. 
If he has the third plural imperfect, call for the third plural of 
each tense. Whatever person and number the book has, make 
your pupils give that person and number of each tense. Require 
this of your pupils and demand that it be done in a few sec- 
onds, and you will be surprised at the result. 

SYNTAX 

Do not be satisfied to read the sentences, translating from 
Latin into English ; but for the first year, parse every word 
requiring the case, gender and number of each noun, pronoun 
or adjective, as the case may be. Do not let your pupils recite 



116 COUNTY HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL 

too slowly ; for instance, accusative case, — a minute passes — 
masculine gender, — another minute — plural number. Why not 
say accusative plural masculine, in one breath? If you will 
train your pupils to think accurately and rapidly in the first 
few lessons, they will become so proficient that future lessons 
will become easy and they can tell the case, gender and num- 
ber of a word in one second. If you wish to make Latin easy, 
use this formula : Give short lessons, give daily reviews, drill 
the forms into your pupils so that they will recognize a case 
on sight; never go into an advanced lesson without a thorough 
knowledge of all past lessons. 

READING ALOUD 

The teacher should train the ear to hear as well as the eye 
to see. Read aloud a Latin sentence and ask for a translation. 
This method forces the pupil to get his vocabularies thor- 
oughly. Read the English aloud and call for the Latin. This 
method not only reviews vocabularies but it trains the ear to 
grasp the sentence as a whole, and when the pupil recites you 
know who is doing the work. Too many teachers require the 
lesson to be written and nothing further. The teacher who 
continues that method only will soon have a class with one 
or two doing the work and the rest copying it. Require your 
pupils to read aloud the Latin until each one is thoroughly 
familiar with the accent and pronunciation. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 

Do not get into this subjunctive too soon. Better take a 
review and be sure that your pupils cannot be caught on the 
indicative. Ton many teachers rush over the first half of the 
book in order to get into the subjunctive. Better never get into 
the subjunctive than to get there without knowing the indica- 
tive in each conjugation. Impress upon your pupils that there 
are two uses of the subjunctive, — dependent and independent. 
Require your pupils to memorize the dependent uses and the 
tenes each takes, and the same with the independent uses. Drill 
your pupils daily on what tenses purpose, result, indirect ques- 
tions, etc., take. 



LATIN 117 

INDIRECT DISCOURSE 

You can make indirect discourse quite easy if yon will take 
a review as soon as the principles of indirect discourse are 

understood. When you take the review, change each sentence 
from tile direct to the indirect form. Try this and watch the 
result. 

GERUND AND GERUNDIVE 

Impress on your pupils that a gerund is a neuter verbal noun 
used only in singular number, hnt the gerundive is a verbal 
adjective, declined like bonus, lie sure to teach your class to 

change from one' to the other. 

EDUCATIONAL VALUE OF LATIN 

The educational value of Latin is well established and it has 
stood the test for centuries. Latin to most students is diffi- 
cult. To get out of Latin the value that is in it. requires hard 
work and there is no use to attempt to disguise that fact. We 
do not believe that every boy in the high school should be 
forced to study Latin. The boy or girl who has no talent for 
languages, who has difficulty in memorizing vocabularies and 
paradigms, ought not to try Latin. Unless a teacher knows 
Latin and something of how to teach it, he is earnestly urged 
not to try it. Nine boys out of ten will love Latin if the 
teacher knows his business. Ambitious boys take great delight 
in mastering this difficult subject when they have confidence 
in the ability and the enthusiasm of the teacher. Too many 
arc trying to teach this subject who know little about the facts 
of the language. If you feel any doubt as to your ability to 
teach the subject and to arouse enthusiasm in your clas>e->, our 
advice to von is to go to some good summer school and come 
in contact with a real teacher of Latin. 

CAESAR 

The following are merelv suggestions for the teacher. If 
he knows his Caesar well and is enthusiastic in his teaching, 
he will have his own method and can hardly fail of -.nccess. 
Although the first book of Caesar is the most difficult of all, 



118 COUNTY HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL 



if the teacher will do his duty, the pupils will not find it tire- 
some to read successively through the first four books. While 
the linguistic side is vital at this time, it should not require so 
much of the pupil's attention that he will overlook the fact that 
he is reading a great political treatise and is not studying 
Caesar as a "drill-book" on syntax. Quality rather than quan- 
tity should be the chief aim. 

During the first semester the progress should be slow and 
accurate. Emphasis should here be laid on the chief principles 
of syntax and there should be a constant review of the forms. 
No rapid progress can be made unless the work at this point 
is thorough. The aim should be to teach Latin so that the 
pupil will be able to read with ease and appreciate what he 
reads. He is a wise teacher who knows what not to teach in 
the second year. Remember that in the matter of syntax some 
points must be reserved for later years. The second year 
pupil is not expected to have that knowledge of the intricate 
points of syntax that a college graduate should have. Let the 
main points be taught and taught well. 

CICERO 

At least six orations of Cicero should be read, the four 
against Catiline, the one for the Manilian Law and that for 
the poet Archias. Syntax should "still receive its share of at- 
tention. Pupils should be required to read the Latin aloud, 
giving the proper rhetorical emphasis. Sight readings from 
the selections at the end of Gunnison and Harley's Cicero 
should accompany the regular reading lessons. Put the pupil 
upon his own resources. Insist upon the very best English in 
translation. Nothing short of this should ever be tolerated. 
Incidentally, work should be given on Roman political institu- 
tions, superstitions and religion. Some few lessons might prof- 
itably be given on the subject of Ancient Oratory and particu- 
larly Roman Oratory. But always remember that these are 
not the main things. 

We must learn to read with rapidity and to appreciate 
Cicero's orations as masterpieces. Prose composition should 
be given for at least one full period a week. A drill on forms 
and syntax might well accompany this. Much must be left 
to the wisdom of the teacher. 



FRENCH 



j^"^ WO units of French are offered as electives in schools 
jvl/ employing four or more teachers. Its study is confined 
to the third and fourth year of the curriculum. Since 
the study of modern languages is still in its infancy in 
the high schools of the State much will depend on the teacher 
as to the place which French will occupy in a given school. If 
the teacher is well prepared for his work and if he is energetic 
and filled with enthusiasm he can win a large number of high 
school students to the study of French. French should be 
studied for the cultural value it possesses. It should be studied 
for the sake of the influence which it has exerted on the 
English language and literature. It is of great value as a pre- 
paration for intellectual pursuits that require ability to read 
French for information. It is indispensable for students of 
art and architecture, and every student of the sciences, agri- 
culture, horticulture and floriculture should know French. In 
addition to its cultural and utilitarian value the study of French 
affords great pleasure, not only because of the beauty of the 
language but also because of the opportunity it affords to 
become familiar with French history, French literature, French 
life, manners and customs. To know the life and thought of a 
foreign nation helps us to appreciate our own excellencies and 
defects as a nation. 

The chief obstacle to the efficient teaching of French in the 
high schools at present is the lack of sufficient number of 
properly prepared teachers. It can be safely assumed that 
many of our teachers of French have had at most the two or 
three years of French offered in our colleges. This training 
should be supplemented by a year or more of study in one of 
the larger universities or at least by summer courses in such 
institutions as Chicago, Columbia, etc. It is very desirable 
that the teacher of French should spend a summer in study 
and travel in France. The Alliance Francaise offers summer 
courses at Paris and at a number of the French universities, 
among others those at Grenoble, Caen, and Lille. The cost of 
a trip to France and return from Alabama need not exceed 



120 COUNTY HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL 

$350 or $400. A summer thus spent will prove of great value 
to the American teacher of French. In fact the teacher who 
has not been in France will not he able to reach his highest 
point of efficiency. 

If possible the French classes should have a room to them- 
selves and this room should he furnished in a way that will 
give it a distinctly French atmosphere. Tt should be provided 
with wall maps, one showing the divisions of France into pro- 
vinces and one showing the division into departments. It 
should contain the French flag, and pictures of great French 
authors, rulers, men of letters, scientists, artists, musician'-. 
etc. Pictures and post cards showing scenes of Paris and 
other places of interest in France should be provided. These 
may be obtained at small cost through G. E. Stechert & Com- 
pany, New York. The teacher's desk should be provided with 
a number of good books in English on French life and cus- 
toms. Such books are published by many of our American 
publishers. Access to a few books of this kind will prove a 
stimulus to the students. 

FIRST YEAR 

The texts adopted for study in the first year of French are 
Fraser & Squair's "Shorter French Course" and Bacon's "Une 
Semaine a Paris." The first half-year should lie devoted en- 
tirely to a careful study of the grammar, embracing thorough, 
constant instruction in pronunciation, vocabulary, idiomatic 
expressions, careful study of regular and irregular verbs, daily 
composition, daily translation in and out of cla>s of exercises 
from French to English and English to French, drill on pro- 
nunciation aloud by concert and individually. The phonetic 
symbols contained in the "Shorter French Course" should be 
employed in teaching pronunciation. Too much attention can 
not lie paid to the position of the tongue and lips in the forma- 
tion of the French vowels. The oral exercises can be used to 
advantage. The student will not learn to speak French fluently 
but oral practice gives zest and interest to the study of the 
language. A thorough foundation in grammar should be 
acquired before much reading is attempted. "The Shorter 
French Course" furnishes ample reading material for the first 
term. 



FRENCH 121 



In the second half-year the student should continue the 
grammar, giving at least two recitations a week to the formal 
study of this subject. Constant reviews should be given. Oral 
practice and written composition should be continued. The 
remaining days of the week should be devoted to "I He Semaine 
a Paris." The teacher should provide himself with some good 
book on Paris in order to supplement the information contained 
in the text. Baedeker's Guide to Paris will be found suitable 
for this purpose. If "Une Semaine a Paris" does not contain 
sufficient reading material for the second term it should be 
supplemented by some simple book such as Lazare's "Les Plus 
Jolis Contes de Fees." or Joynes' "French Fairy Tales." 

SECOND YEAR 

Douay's "An Elementary French Reader" has been adopted 
for use in the second year. In addition to the reader instruc- 
tion should be given one recitation a week in grammar, em- 
bracing more advanced composition than in first year. The 
reading text may be made a basis of composition. The teacher 
should also use the selections in the reader as a basis for oral 
practice and dictation exercises. It is very important that dic- 
tation exercises be given throughout the second year. The 
poems at the end of the reader should be memorized and the 
teacher should explain the difference between the French and 
English methods of versification. Informal talks on French 
literature and the history of France should be given occa- 
sionally. 



GERMAN 



ly^jHE study of German is confined to schools having four 
IV-' I or more teachers. Two units are offered as electives in 

the third and fourth years of the high school curriculum. 

Since the study of German in the high schools of the 
State is still in its infancy the importance of this subject as a 
part of the curriculum will depend largely on the preparation 
of the teacher and his aptitude for the work. A well trained, 
live, energetic teacher will be able to win a fair proportion of 
high school students to the study of German. The first quali- 
fication of the teacher of German should be a sufficient knowl- 
edge of the subject to be able to teach it acceptably; and, too, 
he should be master of the best method of presenting the sub- 
ject. The usual college course in German consisting of from 
one to three years is not sufficient preparation. Additional 
preparation should be had by a year or more of study at one 
of the larger universities, or at least summer courses such as 
are offered at Chicago, Columbia and other such institutions. 
If possible the prospective teacher of German should spend a 
summer in Germany getting a first-hand knowledge of the 
German people, their language, manners and customs, their 
large cities, historic and literary monuments, etc. Vacation 
courses for foreigners are offered at the University of Mar- 
burg and at several other German universities. A few weeks 
of study in one of these universities will be found of marvelous 
benefit to the American teacher of German. The cost of a 
summer in Germany from Alabama and return need not exceed 
$350 or $400. If the teacher desires to reach his highest 
point of efficiency in teaching German he will find it impera- 
tive to spend at least one summer in study and travel abroad. 
It is highly desirable that German classes should have a 
separate room and that the room be furnished in such manner 
as to give a distinctly German atmosphere. The room should 
be provided with a large wall map of Germany, with the Ger- 
man flag, with pictures of the Great German authors, rulers, 
soldiers, scientists, composers, etc. Pictures and postcards rep- 
resenting places of interest in Germany should also be pro- 
vided. Such things as mentioned above may be procured at 



GERMAN 123 



small cost through G. E. Stechert & Company, New York. 
German mottoes and proverbs can be artistically drawn by 
some bright student. The teacher's desk should be provided 
with a few good books in English on German life and customs 
such as Baker's '"Seen in Germany," Mrs. Sidgwick's "Home 
Life in Germany," "Dawson's "German Life in Town and 
Country," Wylie's "The Germans," and Schauffler's "Roman- 
tic Germany." These books may be obtained from their re- 
spective publishers or from G. E. Stechert & Companv, New 
York. 

■ The teacher should also provide himself with books which 
will be helpful in teaching. The following will be of service 
in the teaching of German : On pronunciation and phonetics : 
Grandgent's German and English Sounds (Ginn & Co., $0.50), 
Hempl's German Orthography and Phonology (Ginn & Co.), 
Vietor's German Pronunciation (Carl Schoenhor, Boston), 
Yietor-Ripmann's Elements of Phonetics, English, French and 
German (Dent, $1.00 L German grammars for reference: 
Thomas's German Grammar (Holt) or Curme's A Grammar 
of the German Language (Macmillan). Dictionaries: Muret- 
Sander's (abridged edition), two volumes (German-English, 
English-German), cost about $2.00 for each volume; Fliigel- 
Schmidt-Tanger's German-English and English-German dic- 
tionary Teach part $2.00) ; Heyne's Deutsches Worterbuch 
(Kleine Ausgabe, $3.25). Perhaps the best all-German dic- 
tionary. For recent German spelling reforms Duden's "Or- 
thographisches Worterbuch der Deutschen Sprache" will be 
found indispensable. Among the briefer histories of the 
literature published in English are those by Franeke, 
Priest, Hosmer and Robertson. A good history in German 
is Biese's "Deutsche Literaturgeschichte" (published at Mun- 
ich in 1911). Any of these books may be obtained through 
G. E. Stechert & Company, New York. The teacher should 
also provide himself with Bagster-Collins' German in Second- 
ary Schools (Columbia University Press), Bahlsen's Methods 
of Teaching Foreign Languages (Ginn), Report of the Com- 
mittee of Twelve of the Modern Language Association of 
America (Heath), Breul's Teaching of Modern Foreign Lan- 
guages in Our Secondary Schools (Cambridge, England). A 
small pamphlet recently published by the American Book 
Company will be found helpful: "A Letter to Teachers of 
German." This can be procured free of charge by addressing 



124 COUNTY HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL 

the company. The history of Germany is well treated in Hen- 
derson's "A Short History of Germany" (Macmillan). 

FIRST YEAR 

The texts which have been adopted for study in the first 
year of German are Kayser & Monteser's "Foundations of 
German" and Kern's German Stories Retold." The "Founda- 
tions of German" has been prepared along; the lines most ap- 
proved for the study of German in America. It presents only 
the essentials of German grammar necessary to laying a good 
foundation in the language. The lessons are arranged in pro- 
gressive order and should stimulate self-activity as well as 
develop "Sprachgefuhl.' ' While the German-English and 
English-German exercises are intended primarily to illustrate 
grammatical forms and rules yet they can easily be made the 
bases of simple conversation. It is not presumed that the high 
school student in America will attain a fluent speaking knowl- 
edge of German, yet it has been clearly demonstrated that the 
ear and tongue are equally as good as the eye in procuring an 
accurate and ready knowledge of a foreign language. Con- 
versation after all is only oral composition, and oral practice 
not only helps to fix the language in the mind but awakens 
the enthusiasm and interest of the student. Teachers who 
have not had the advantage of coming into contact with the 
spoken language will be surprised at the readiness with which 
they will be able to conduct simple conversational exercises if 
they will but turn their attention to it. Thorough preparation 
of the lesson beforehand will enable them to handle the exer- 
cises of each lesson in a conversational way. 

Before taking up the lessons in the grammar the teacher 
should spend a few days on pronunciation and German script. 
The teacher who has had training in phonetics will be at a 
decided advantage in presenting the sounds of German vowels 
and consonants. The student should be shown at the outset 
that the position assumed by his tongue and lips in the pro- 
nunciation of English will have to be changed in order to 
secure the correct sound. At first it will require considerable 
gymnastic practice to give the right position of the tongue 
and lips in pronouncing the German vowels, but after a short 
while this difficulty can be overcome. A correct pronounciation 
should be insisted on from the outset as this is the first essen- 



GERMAN 125 



tial in acquiring a living' language. Exercises in pronuncia- 
tion should be given at every lesson through the course. The 
teacher should try to guard the student from falling into the 
monotone usually employed by students in reading in a foreign 
language. While there is a difference of opinion as to the 
value of teaching German script, it seems advisable that it 
should be taught, as it is employed throughout Germany gen- 
erally. The script should be taught from the beginning. A 
few preliminary drills based on the examples in the first pages 
of the grammar will enable the student to write his exercises 
from the outset in the script. 

One of the greatest difficulties to the American student in 
the study of German is gender. The only safe way to teach 
German gender is to require that the proper form of the 
definite article be learned with every noun. Instead of learning 
Mann, Fran, Buck, the studen should learn der Mann, Die 
Fran, das Buck. The vocabularies acompanying the lessons 
should be thoroughly learned before the exercises are under- 
taken and should be constantly reviewed. In order to learn 
the classification of nouns by declension the student should be 
required to give the principal parts of every new noun — that 
is, the nominative singular, the genitive singular, and the nom- 
inative plural. These can be fixed in the mind only by con- 
stant repetition. Especial attention should be paid to the 
strong and weak declension of adjectives. Before undertaking 
this topic in the book the teacher should spend a period illus- 
trating and explaining the subject on the blackboard. This 
will save much confusion and many mistakes in subsequet 
lessons. In the study of the verb the teacher should explain 
the composition of the verb and insist that conjugation be 
learned by placing proper endings to the stem of the verb and 
not by mere memorizing of paradigms. The principal parts 
of strong, mixed and irregular verbs listed on pages 180-183 
should be learned together with their meanings. In teaching 
the prepositions the teacher should not only insist that the 
lists of prepositions governing the various cases be memorized, 
but should call attention constantly to their use in sentences 
and idioms. First-year students will make many mistakes in 
word order. Every correction in word order should be care- 
lullv explained by the teacher or by some student in the class. 

One great excellence of the grammar lies in the fact that 
each of the lessons has been kept within the bounds of a single 



126 COUNTY HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL 

recitation. A whole lesson should be assigned every day for 
four days in the week and the fifth recitation should be given 
to review. At the end of each month a general review should 
be given. While it is desirable to begin the reading of regular 
selections as soon as possible it will perhaps be wise to defer 
this until after the completion of the fifty-six lesons which 
the grammar contains. Kern's "German Stories Retold" may 
then be taken up. The text should afford not only a basis for 
reading, but for simple conversation as well. The questions at 
the end of the volume will be found suitable for this purpose. 
After the questions have been answered orally in the class one 
or more students should be required to tell the story as a whole 
in German. The text should also be made the basis for con- 
stant grammatical review, and for dictation exercises. The 
principal parts of all nouns and verbs should be required, and 
daily drill in gender of nouns contained in the reading selec- 
tion should be given. After the completion of "German Stories 
Retold" the balance of the year should be spent on the reading 
selections and grammar review contained in Appendix I of 
the grammar. 

SECOND YEAR 

In the second year of German the text adopted is Lutz's 
"An Elementary German Reader." Daily grammatical review 
based on the text should accompany each selection read and 
the contents of Appendix II of the grammar should be inter- 
woven. All of the selections in part one of the reader lend 
themselves admirably to conversational practice and retelling. 
The teacher will find it profitable to have the student re-write 
these stories in German, boiling the text down to a given num- 
ber of words. By using the text as a guide the student will 
find this an easy and interesting exercise. In part two before 
assigning a new lesson the teacher should read the poems 
aloud in order to give the student an idea of the beauty and 
rythm of German lyric poetry. The student should be encour- 
aged to read them aloud for himself and should be required 
to memorize the following poems: "Du bist wie eine Blume," 
"Vergissmeinnicht," "Hoffnung," "Reiters Morgengesang," 
"Lorelei," "Erlkonig," "Des Deutschen Vaterland," and "Die 
Wacht am Rhein." The reader should be completed by the 
end of the second year. 



VOCATIONAL ACCOUNTS 



Si OR a course of two periods a week, one year, the test, 
I Principles of Bookkeeping and Farm Accounts, should 
be adequate, though it may require a little more time 
to complete the necessary drill work on the principles 
of bookkeeping and give the students a thorough mastery of 
their application to farm accounts. 

The course should qualify a student (a) to keep a simple 
set of books in any mercantile business, (b) to assist in han- 
dling an elaborate set in a large business, and (c) to keep an 
accurate account of all transactions in connection with the bus- 
iness of farming. The last is by far the most important. The 
first and second results, however, are valuable to any boy 
or girl and are acquired with no additional expenditure of 
time, since the basic principles of bookkeeping must be under- 
stood before even a simple farm set of books can be kept and 
understood. 

PART I 

This part of the course covers 35 lessons in the test and is 
designed to lay a thorough foundation for the special study of 
farm accounts in Part II. If additional drills on principles is 
required for all or a part of any class, other similar exercises 
can be mimeographed for class use as they are needed. 

Some oral work should form a part of every recitation. Re- 
view questions are given frequently, but they are merely sug- 
gestive. A student who can stand on his feet and talk about 
the principles he has studied is quite sure to understand them. 
Writing up sets alone will not suffice. The student must be 
taught to think, not merely to follow directions. 

Original work should be encouraged whenever possible. Lose 
no opportunity to connect up what you are teaching with actual 
practice. 

In Part I the lessons are purposely short, as thoroughness 
is of first importance and frequent reviews are valuable. In 
Part II short lessons are not practicable in the arrangement of 



128 COUNTY HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL 

the subject matter, and the teacher must guard against too 
rapid progress at the expense of thoroughness. 

Business writing should be emphasized in this part of the 
course. Excellent models are found on almost every page of 
the test. Small writing is essential in keeping any columnar 
set of books and some special practice on figures is important. 
Note the approved forms used in the test. 

The numbers of paragraphs are intended for careful study 
and students should not be permitted to proceed to a new- 
lesson until all subject matter is learned. 

Some time can be spent profitably in copying the models 
presented in the text. 

PART II 

In this part of the course the principles of bookkeeping are 
applied to the keeping of farm accounts. Emphasize the dif- 
ference between data records and permanent records. For 
example, a labor record blank like the one illustrated on page 
1 Mi. may lie ruled and kept on a shingle in the barn so that 
the farm hands may easily record their time each day. These 
data sheets will be made the basis of permanent cost accounts 
that can be prepared periodically. Feed record sheets are also 
• lata records that should be accurately, even if roughly, kept. 

Farm Set I includes a complete series of transactions for a 
comparatively simple farm business, such as may be handled by 
an individual with the help of the family and employees. 

The importance of the "Farm Plot" is taught and the method 
of using this data sheet is thoroughly presented. 

The annual inventory method of ascertaining profits for the 
year is shown and a simple but effective set of books is intro- 
duced. The larger benefits to be derived from the latter 
method are easily understood. 

Simple farm accounts with persons are important and must 
be emphasized. Farm Set TI is a more elaborate treatment of 
farm accounts in which a partnership business is studied. 

Give much attention to inventory work inasmuch as it is 
the basis of much of the statement work in any system of 
accounts. 

Drill on farm plot work until its significance is fully under- 
stood, and make the work original whenever it is possible. 



VOCATIONAL ACCOUNTS 129 

Farm business is essentially a cash business, and a modified 
form of cashbook is the principal original entry-book. 

Study valuation and depreciation of property thoroughly. 

Cost accounts, in addition to the regular form accounts, are 
essential and, for purposes of comparison from year to year, 
should be kept with great care. Be sure that all students un- 
derstand their importance and relation to the other records of 
the business. Show that it is not enough to show how much 
net profit results from the year's business, but that the source 
of all losses and gains must be known for future guidance. 

PART III 

For those who may need to know how to apply their knowl- 
edge of the principles of bookkeeping to the keeping of a mer- 
cantile set, one special set of this character should be carefully 
covered. Through this set the most common original entry- 
books can be taught. 

Some home work should be required of the class every day. 
Neatness and accuracy must be insisted upon in all written 
work. The printed blanks should be used especially where a 
limited amount of time is devoted to the subject. Some origi- 
nal forms may be ruled in connection with supplementary exer- 
cises. 



5HS 



ECONOMICS 



C5 



HE object of a course in economics in a county high 
school is not so much to make technical political econo- 
mists as to prepare future heads of families to apply the 
principles of fundamental economics to the affairs of 
daily life, in this case, particularly to daily life on the farm. 
True, these fundamentals are the same in every vocation, but 
this course is directed more to the making of thrifty mothers 
and fathers than thrifty bankers, merchants, brokers, etc. The 
essentials of any science are invariable, but they may be pre- 
sented from various angles and for various purposes ; and it is 
hoped that the principles of this subject may be so presented 
and applied as to render life on the farm more pleasant and 
profitable. 

The chief divisions of economics are the production, ex- 
change, and distribution of wealth. All others are subordinate 
to and are involved in these three ; hence, effort should be 
centered upon them, that they may be clearly and firmly fixed 
in the student's mind. Farmers as a class are chiefly con- 
cerned with producing wealth, but ignorance of the process of 
its proper exchange and distribution subject them to exploita- 
tion by those who are willing to take advantage of such ignor- 
ance. Therefore, along with land, labor, capital, tools, ma- 
chinery, division and co-operation of labor, and other agencies 
of production, the makers of wealth should understand the 
general principles of money, value and price, banking, taxation, 
wages, profits, interest, transportation, conservation, market- 
ing, etc. 

The book selected as a text seems to be well adapted to its 
purpose, but, like most books dealing with technical subjects, 
it has its shortcomings. For instance, in Chapter I, Part I, 
such technical terms as zvealth, counters, capital, and money 
occur, whereas their economic definitions are placed further 
on. This difficulty is unavoidable, since everything that is im- 
portant in a book cannot come first. The teacher's chief func- 
tion is to assist the pupil in overcoming such difficulties. Let 



ECONOMICS 131 



him precede, point out the trouble, and give such directions as 
may be necessary. 

The book consists of 355 pages and is to be completed in 
18 weeks. The recitation schedule provides 3 lessons per 
week, or a total of 54 lessons. Allowing 12 lessons for a review 
of the book, and 4 for unforseen interferences, it will be found 
that the regular lessons must average about 10 pages. Each 
chapter of the text is preceded by an outline and followed by 
a list of topics for class discussion. It is suggested that the 
recitation quiz be based upon the outline, and that at least one 
of the most practical topics for discussion be assigned before- 
hand for a written exercise to be examined by the teacher at 
his leisure. Occasionally this written work should be replaced 
by a debate, with the class divided and given sides. Whenever 
practicable, let the topics for either the written exercises or the 
debate be chosen from the home life of the pupils. 

Another suggestion is that the school select one phase of 
community life that is of economic value, make an exhaustive 
study of it, apply to it the economic principles involved and 
use it as an object lesson to the people of the community. To 
illustrate, one school might demonstrate the feasibility and 
profit of a cooperative creamery ; another, a cooperative can- 
nery ; another, a community exchange for cooperative selling 
and buying; and still another, a machinery exchange for the 
benefit of such individuals as cannot afford the expense alone. 
In this way the schools are teaching the people to apply the 
principles of division and cooperation of labor in the most 
practical and profitable way. Not only so, but they are demon- 
strating their own value to the community and the value and 
practicability of community organization. 

If these results are accomplished (and there are no good 
reasons why they should not be), the incorporation of this 
subject in the high school course will be fully justified. 



MECHANICAL DRAWING 



Texts : 

First Semester — Educational and Industrial Drawing — 
Thompson — Mechanical Series, Book No. 1. 

Second Semester — Ditto — Book No. 2. 

Materials: 

The course as outlined may well he carried out with but 
little equipment. As your author states, "A pair of pen — or 
pencil — compasses, a ruler, a hard pencil and paper, are all 
that are absolutely necessary." Those who cannot afford to 
purchase more, and those who are not inclined to do so at 
first, can get something from the course as outlined in the 
texts with the above materials. However, if the course is to 
be made a real mechanical drawing course, and results secured 
in keeping with other schools giving standard courses, more 
than the above will be necessary. 

As mechanical drawing instruments are comparatively ex- 
pensive, the principal and instructor will be expected to use 
good judgment in the matter of requiring these to he pur- 
chased. If a few pupils, however, he led to voluntarily get 
good instruments and supplies, the matter will become con- 
tagious and within a few years the mechanical drawing course 
in the county high schools can be put on such a basis that the 
purchasing of proper supplies may be required of all pupils. 
However, we must go slowly at first and act very tactfully in 
the beginning. This will come from growth, rather than set 
rules. 

The following is suggested as ample for any high school 
course, and may be gradually introduced by the more willing 
pupils. The difficulty would be lessened if the school could 
own the instruments, drawing boards, T-Squares, scales and 
triangles, holding the pupils to whom they are leased respon- 
sible for the proper care of them during the year. In this way 
the pupils would be put to the expense of only paper, ink, and 
other perishable supplies. 

1 set of Instruments'* including: 
(a) A Ruling Pen. 



MECHANICAL DRAWING 133 

( b) Pair Dividers. 

(c) Compass, with pen and pencil attachment. 

( (1 ) Bow Pen, Bow Pencil, Bow Dividers (optional) 
1 Drawing Board, 18 in. x 24 in., soft wood (may be made 

by Manual Training pupils). 
1 T-Square, 24-inch (may be made as above). 
1 30 x 60 Degree Triangle. 
1 45 Degree Triangle. 
1 Architect's Triangular Scale. 
1 Bottle India Ink (waterproof). 
1 4H Drawing Pencil. 
y 2 dozen Thumb Tacks. 
1 Soft Eraser. 

Drawing Paper : 

Any good drawing paper will suffice if it is thick enough to 
withstand erasures. What is known as "Detail Paper" is rec- 
ommended for general use. It is buff in color, comes in the 
roll, can be bought by the yard as needed, and may be had 
from any dealer of architects' and engineers' supplies. 

It is recommended that one or two plates during the year 
be made on regular drawing paper, designated as Whatman's 
Hot Pressed Drawing Paper. This comes in sheets of various 
sizes ; Demy size is convenient for handling and for use. 

Plates : 

Some definite size should he decided upon by the instructor, 
and pupils should be required to submit plates of this size — ■ 
exact measurements. Drawings should not extend to the edges 
of the paper, but for the sake of neatness, a margin of j4 mcn 
or 1 inch should be left on each plate. The marginal line 
should be drawn on the plate in the beginning, and the draw- 
ings spaced accordingly. A convenient size for the plates of 
the first semester is i) in. x 12 in., and for the second semester, 
12 in. x 15 in. Four, or more, drawings may be put on each 
plate. 



*Note: — Complete sets of the above in neat leather cases may be 
had from dealers in architects' and engineers' supplies. The fol- 
lowing makes are suggested for high school use: Eugene Dietzgen 
set No. 1188, $2.25; Keuffel & Esser set No. 9525 V 2 , $2.50; Three 
Bow set of either Weber or Post, $2.50. One Bow sets are much 
cheaper and will suffice for ordinary work. 



134 COUNTY HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL 

The drawings should be carefully made in pencil, accurately 
drawn, measurements exact, erasures made, and then inked 
over the pencil lines. Common writing ink should never be 
used in ruling pens. After inked in, the plates should be 
cleaned of all pencil lines and finger prints, properly trimmed, 
and submitted by the pupil to the instructor for approval. 

Neatness and Accuracy. 

It is far better to have a few plates well done, as models of 
neatness and accuracy, than to have many done in a careless 
way. The instructor should see to it that all plates are care- 
fully preserved until the end of the semester. By so doing, it 
encourages neatness, system and order and besides gives avail- 
able material for exhibit work at any time. 

Lettering : 

Poor lettering often makes an otherwise good plate useless. 
On the other hand, good lettering often makes a poor plate 
acceptable. Much drill should be given on the details of let- 
tering for each problem. It should first be done on practice 
paper, and then put on the finished plate. The statement of the 
problem, as given in italics in the text, should be carefully 
printed under, or adjacent to, each drawing. Guide lines to 
limit the height of both capitals and lower case letters, should 
be made lightly in pencil, and afterwards erased. Guide lines 
in pencil should also be used to keep the proper slant of letters, 
using the GO degree triangle. The letters should be put in 
with pencil first, and afterwards inked in with common writing 
pen and India ink. A copy of a simple, well rendered alphabet 
should be kept on the blackboard in plain sight of the pupils at 
all times. 

Blue Prints and Tracings: 

During the second semester of the mechanical drawing work 
pupils should be allowed to make a tracing from one, or more, 
of their best plates, and make blue prints therefrom. By 
having all pupils get ready for this at the same time, a roll of 
blue print paper may be ordered from your nearest supply 
house, and utilized without waste. If, however, the roll is kept 
in the dark, there need be no haste in using it. A roll, 80 
inches wide and 10 yards long, will cost about sixty cents. A 
high priced printing frame is not essential, as the prints may 



MECHANICAL DRAWING 135 

be readily made by holding the tracing and blue print paper 
tightly between a soft cloth and a piece of glass on a board or 
other flat surface. 

Amount of Work : 

There should be no difficulty in covering the amount of work 
in the texts. It is not essential, however, to have pupils exe- 
cute all the so-called applications, designated in the texts by 
the letters, A, B, C, D, etc. It is recommended that the in- 
structor give supplementary problems involving applications 
in common things of farm and home use. Working drawings 
of manual training projects can be used to good advantage. 

References : 

Mechanical Drawing — Tracey. American Book Co. 

Mechanical Drawing for High Schools — Books I and II — Sloan. 
Atkinson, Mentzer Company, Chicago. 

Mechanical Drawing for Trade Schools — Leeds. D. Van Nos- 
trand Co., N. Y. 

Notes for Mechanical Drawing — Mathewson. Taylor Holden Co., 
Springfield, Mass. 



MANUAL TRAINING 



m 



AXIAL training in the county high school should pos- 
sess two features — the educational and the practical : the 
training of the eye and hand and the construction of 
articles of use. While all objects made by the several 
classes should possess some practical value when finished, the 
most important feature is the educational one and should be 
kept in mind at all times. It is not the purpose of this work 
to train pupils simply to make articles, although these may 
possess intrinsic value. 

The arranging of the exercises should be primarily for the 
education derived from them, but many can be used for broader 
purposes than the mere training of the hand and eye. For 
instance, in the construction of a road drag by a manual train- 
ing class, the hand training is secured in the first instance, and 
the article when finished has some intrinsic value, but the use 
of the road drag for the development of good roads is of far 
broader and deeper significance. While it is not possible to 
have a new feature entirely in every article that is made, repe- 
tition should be avoided when possible. A great many sup- 
plementary exercises, however, should be used for the pur- 
pose of furthering the skill of the pupils and broadening the 
work of the class. 

Manual training is correlated with drawing, and the pupil 
should be required to make sketches of his work. Where the 
teacher finds it desirable for the purpose of supplementing the 
text, the pupil should make full drawings of the exercises. 

Before beginning any exercise a clear concept of it must be 
obtained and the pupil should be required to show that he pos- 
sesses a complete understanding of the work. 

While some time may be required for pure exercise work, 
that is, the performing of operations on some object which is 
of no special value, it should be limited, and almost immediate- 
ly the exercises should be those which will be applied to some 
practical use. From the beginning the aim of the manual 
training work should be to make some useful article. When 
possible the preference of the pupil as to what he should make 
should be considered, provided he has a clear conception of it 



VOCATIONAL ACCOUNTS 129 

Farm business is essentially a cash business, and a modified 
form of cashbook is the principal original entry-book. 

Study valuation and depreciation of property thoroughly. 

Cost accounts, in addition to the regular form accounts, are 
essential and, for purposes of comparison from year to year, 
should be kept with great care. Be sure that all students un- 
derstand their importance and relation to the other records of 
the business. Show that it is not enough to show how much 
net profit results from the year's business, but that the source 
of all losses and gains must be known for future guidance. 

PART III 

For those who may need to know how to apply their knowl- 
edge of the principles of bookkeeping to the keeping of a mer- 
cantile set, one special set of this character should be carefully 
covered. Through this set the most common original entry- 
books can be taught. 

Some home work should be required of the class every day. 
Neatness and accuracy must be insisted upon in all written 
work. The printed blanks should be used especially where a 
limited amount of time is devoted to the subject. Some origi- 
nal forms may be ruled in connection with supplementary exer- 
cises. 



5HS 



ECONOMICS 



y^> HE object of a course in economics in a county high 
vl/ school is not so much to make technical political econo- 
mists as to prepare future heads of families to apply the 
principles of fundamental economics to the affairs of 
daily life, in this case, particularly to daily life on the farm. 
True, these fundamentals are the same in every vocation, but 
this course is directed more to the making of thrifty mothers 
and fathers than thrift) bankers, merchants, brokers, etc. The 
essentials of any science are invariable, but they may be pre- 
sented from various angles and for various purposes; and it is 
hoped that the principles of this subject may be so presented 
and applied as to render life on the farm more pleasant and 
profitable. 

The chief divisions of economics are the production, ex- 
change, and distribution of wealth. All others are subordinate 
to and are involved in these three ; hence, effort should be 
centered upon them, that they may be clearly and firmly fixed 
in the student's mind. Farmers as a class are chiefly con- 
cerned with producing wealth, but ignorance of the process of 
its proper exchange and distribution subject them to exploita- 
tion by those who are willing to take advantage of such ignor- 
ance. Therefore, along with land, labor, capital, tools, ma- 
chinery, division and co-operation of labor, and other agencies 
of production, the makers of wealth should understand the 
general principles of money, value and price, banking, taxation, 
wages, profits, interest, transportation, conservation, market- 
ing, etc. 

The book selected as a text seems to be well adapted to its 
purpose, but, like most books dealing with technical subjects, 
it has its shortcomings. For instance, in Chapter I, Part I, 
such technical terms as wealth, counters, capital, and money 
occur, whereas their economic definitions are placed further 
on. This difficulty is unavoidable, since everything that is im- 
portant in a book cannot come first. The teacher's chief func- 
tion is to assist the pupil in overcoming such difficulties. Let 



ECONOMICS 131 



him precede, point out the trouble, and give such directions as 
may be necessary. 

The book consists of 355 pages and is to be completed in 
18 weeks. The recitation schedule provides 3 lessons per 
week, or a total of 54 lessons. Allowing 12 lessons for a review 
of the book, and 4 for unforseen interferences, it will be found 
that the regular lessons must average about 10 pages. Each 
chapter of the text is preceded by an outline and followed by 
a list of topics for class discussion. It is suggested that the 
recitation quiz be based upon the outline, and that at least one 
of the most practical topics for discussion be assigned before- 
hand for a written exercise to be examined by the teacher at 
his leisure. Occasionally this written work should be replaced 
by a debate, with the class divided and given sides. Whenever 
practicable, let the topics for either the written exercises or the 
debate be chosen from the home life of the pupils. 

Another suggestion is that the school select one phase of 
community life that is of economic value, make an exhaustive 
study of it, apply to it the economic principles involved and 
use it as an object lesson to the people of the community. To 
illustrate, one school might demonstrate the feasibility and 
profit of a cooperative creamery ; another, a cooperative can- 
nery ; another, a community exchange for cooperative selling 
and buying; and still another, a machinery exchange for the 
benefit of such individuals as cannot afford the expense alone. 
In this way the schools are teaching the people to apply the 
principles of division and cooperation of labor in the most 
practical and profitable way. Not only so, but they are demon- 
strating their own value to the community and the value and 
practicability of community organization. 

If these results are accomplished (and there are no good 
reasons why they should not be), the incorporation of this 
subject in the high school course will be fully justified. 



MECHANICAL DRAWING 



Texts : 

First Semester — Educational and Industrial Drawing — 
Thompson — Mechanical Series, Book No. 1. 

Second Semester — Ditto — Book No. 2. 

Materials : 

The course as outlined may well be carried out with but 
little equipment. As your author states. "A pair of pen — or 
pencil — compasses, a ruler, a hard pencil and paper, are all 
that are absolutely necessary." Those who cannot afford to 
purchase more, and those who are not inclined to do so at 
first, can get something from the course as outlined in the 
texts with the above materials. However, if the course is to 
be made a real mechanical drawing course, and results secured 
in keeping with other schools giving standard courses, more 
than the above will be necessary. 

As mechanical drawing instruments arc comparatively ex- 
pensive, the principal and instructor will be expected to use 
good judgment in the matter of requiring these to be pur- 
chased. If a few pupils, however, be led to voluntarily get 
good instruments and supplies, the matter will become con- 
tagious and within a few years the mechanical drawing course 
in the county high schools can be put on such a basis that the 
purchasing of proper supplies may be required of all pupils. 
However, we must go slowly at first and act very tactfully in 
the beginning. This will come from growth, rather than set 
rules. 

The following is suggested as ample for any high school 
course, and may be gradually introduced by the more willing 
pupils. The difficulty would be lessened if the school could 
own the instruments, drawing boards, T-Squares, scales and 
triangles, holding the pupils to whom they are leased respon- 
sible for the proper care of them during the year. In this way 
the pupils would be put to the expense of only paper, ink, and 
other perishable supplies. 

1 set of Instruments'* including : 
(a) A Ruling Pen. 



MECHANICAL DRAWING 133 

( b) Pair Dividers. 

(c) Compass, with pen and pencil attachment. 

(d) Bow Pen, Bow Pencil, Bow Dividers (optional) 

1 Drawing Board, 18 in. x 24 in., soft wood (may be made 

by Manual Training pupils). 
1 T-Square, 24-inch (may be made as above). 
1 30 x 60 Degree Triangle. 
1 45 Degree Triangle. 
1 Architect's Triangular Scale. 
1 Bottle India Ink (waterproof). 
1 4H Drawing Pencil. 
y 2 dozen Thumb Tacks. 
1 Soft Eraser. 

Drcvwing Paper : 

Any good drawing paper will suffice if it is thick enough to 
withstand erasures. What is known as "Detail Paper" is rec- 
ommended for general use. It is buff in color, comes in the 
roll, can be bought by the yard as needed, and may be had 
from any dealer of architects' and engineers' supplies. 

It is recommended that one or two plates during the year 
be made on regular drawing paper, designated as Whatman's 
Hot Pressed Drawing Paper. This comes in sheets of various 
sizes ; Demy size is convenient for handling and for use. 

Plates : 

Some definite size should be decided upon by the instructor, 
and pupils should be required to submit plates of this size — 
exact measurements. Drawings should not extend to the edges 
of the paper, but for the sake of neatness, a margin of }i inch 
or 1 inch should be left on each plate. The marginal line 
should be drawn on the plate in the beginning, and the draw- 
ings spaced accordingly. A convenient size for the plates of 
the first semester is in. x 12 in., and for the second semester, 
12 in. x 15 in. Four, or more, drawings may be put on each 
plate. 

*Note: — Complete sets of the above in neat leather cases may be 
had from dealers in architects' and engineers' supplies. The fol- 
lowing makes are suggested for high school use: Eugene Dietzgen 
set No. 1188, $2.25; Keuffel & Esser set No. 9525 V 2) $2.50; Three 
Bow set of either Weber or Post, $2.50. One Bow sets are much 
cheaper and will suffice for ordinary work. 



134 COUNTY HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL 

The drawings should be carefully made in pencil, accurately 
drawn, measurements exact, erasures made, and then inked 
over the pencil lines. Common writing ink should never be 
used in ruling pens. After inked in, the plates should be 
cleaned of all pencil lines and finger prints, properly trimmed, 
and submitted by the pupil to the instructor for approval. 

Neatness and Accuracy. 

It is far better to have a few plates well done, as models of 
neatness and accuracy, than to have many done in a careless 
way. The instructor should see to it that all plates are care- 
fully preserved until the end of the semester. By so doing, it 
encourages neatness, system and order and besides gives avail- 
able material for exhibit work at any time. 

Lettering : 

Poor lettering often makes an otherwise good plate useless. 
On the other hand, good lettering often makes a poor plate 
acceptable. Much drill should be given on the details of let- 
tering for each problem. It should first be done on practice 
paper, and then put on the finished plate. The statement qf the 
problem, as given in italics in the text, should be carefully 
printed under, or adjacent to, each drawing. Guide lines to 
limit the height of both capitals and lower case letters, should 
be made lightly in pencil, and afterwards erased. Guide lines 
in pencil should also be used to keep the proper slant of letters, 
using the 60 degree triangle. The letters should be put in 
with pencil first, and afterwards inked in with common writing 
pen and India ink. A copy of a simple, well rendered alphabet 
should be kept on the blackboard in plain sight of the pupils at 
all times. 

Blue Prints and Tracings: 

During the second semester of the mechanical drawing work 
pupils should be allowed to make a tracing from one, or more, 
of their best plates, and make blue prints therefrom. By 
having all pupils get ready for this at the same time, a roll of 
blue print paper - may be ordered from your nearest supply 
house, and utilized without waste. If. however, the roll is kept 
in the dark, there need be no haste in using it. A roll, 30 
inches wide and 10 yards long, will cost about sixty cents. A 
high priced printing frame is not essential, as the prints may 



MECHANICAL DRAWING 135 

be readily made by holding the tracing and blue print paper 
tightly between a soft cloth and a piece of glass on a board or 
other flat surface. 

Amount of Work : 

There should be no difficulty in covering the amount of work 
in the texts. It is not essential, however, to have pupils exe- 
cute all the so-called applications, designated in the texts by 
the letters, A, B, C, D, etc. It is recommended that the in- 
structor give supplementary problems involving applications 
in common things of farm and home use. Working drawings 
of manual training projects can be used to good advantage. 

References : 

Mechanical Drawing — Tracey. American Book Co. 

Mechanical Drawing for High Schools — Books I and II — Sloan. 
Atkinson, Mentzer Company, Chicago. 

Mechanical Drawing for Trade Schools — Leeds. D. Van Nos- 
trand Co., N. Y. 

Notes for Mechanical Drawing — Mathewson. Taylor Holden Co., 
Springfield, Mass. 



MANUAL TRAINING 



M 



ANUAL, training in the county high school should pos- 
sess two features — the educational and the practical : the 
training of the eye and hand and the construction of 
articles of use. While all objects made by the several 
classes should possess some practical value when finished, the 
most important feature is the educational one and should be 
kept in mind at all times. It is not the purpose of this work 
to train pupils simply to make articles, although these may 
possess intrinsic value. 

The arranging of the exercises should be primarily for the 
education derived from them, but many can be used for broader 
purposes than the mere training of the hand and eye. For 
instance, in the construction of a road drag by a manual train- 
ing class, the hand training is secured in the first instance, and 
the article when finished has some intrinsic value, but the use 
of the road drag for the development of good roads is of far 
broader and deeper significance. While it is not possible to 
have a new feature entirely in every article that is made, repe- 
tition should be avoided when possible. A great many sup- 
plementary exercises, however, should be used for the pur- 
pose of furthering the skill of the pupils and broadening the 
work of the class. 

Manual training is correlated with drawing, and the pupil 
should be required to make sketches of his work. Where the 
teacher finds it desirable for the purpose of supplementing the 
text, the pupil should make full drawings of the exercises. 

Before beginning any exercise a clear concept of it must be 
obtained and the pupil should be required to show that he pos- 
sesses a complete understanding of the work. 

While some time may be required for pure exercise work, 
that is, the performing of operations on some object which is 
of no special value, it should be limited, and almost immediate- 
ly the exercises should be those which will be applied to some 
practical use. From the beginning the aim of the manual 
training work should be to make some useful article. When 
possible the preference of the pupil as to what he should make 
should be considered, provided he has a clear conception of it 



MANUAL TRAINING 137 



and the project is not beyond his ability to construct. The 
greater amount of the manual training work in the county high 
school should be in wood, as it is more readily obtained than 
any other material, and the finished articles can be better 
adapted to a useful purpose. Besides, woodwork requires 
fewer tools than some other forms of work. In all manual 
training work quality should be emphasized over quantity. 
Exactness, accuracy, thoroughness, and good workmanship 
are the ends to be sought by the teacher in the work of the 
pupil. These qualities are moral as well as industrial and 
react upon the character as well as upon workmanship. 

Work benches can be erected by the class in Manual Train- 
ing under the direction of the teacher at a very much lower cost 
than those on the market. *A work bench which will cost 
$10.50 can be constructed at a cost not exceeding $2.00. Benches 
thus made will serve the purpose and will stand wear and tear 
quite as well as any other work bench. Besides, this will afford 
some constructive work in carpentry wdiich will be of a simple 
nature, giving the class some idea of construction and at the 
same time a considerable saving will be effected, which can be 
applied to other equipment. 

OUTLINE OF COURSE 

First Year: 

Course I. Bench work in wood : construction of simple 
articles requiring few tools. 

Course IT. Advanced woodwork — continuation of Course I. 
Second Year : 

Course III. Projects for use in the home and on the farm. 

Course IV. Projects in furniture construction ; apparatus 
for illustrating laws of physics. 

Third Year: 

Course V. Cement-concrete work for the farm and home. 

Course VI. Farm mechanics. 

Course I includes simple articles of use, which will embrace 
the customary constructive joints. In this course bench acces- 
sories, as bench hook, tool rack, and mitre box should be first 
made by each pupil as these will assit the equipment of the 



*Full plans and specifications together with complete instruc- 
tions for making three styles of school work benches can be ob- 
tained without cost from the Department of Machine Design and 
Drawing. Alabama Polytechnic Institute, Auburn, Ala. 



6 HS 



138 COUNTY HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL 

shop; later, such articles as broom holder, necktie rack, towel 
rack, book shelf, magazine rack, picture frame, taboret, blacking 
stand, handkerchief box, ironing board, coat hanger, etc. 

Course II embraces advanced exercises of the same general 
nature, as porch swing, lawn benches, folding cot, playground 
apparatus for home and school, etc. 

Course 111 includes useful articles for the farm and home, as 
ste] (ladder, farm gate, wagon jack, split log road drag, plank 
road drag, harrow, terracing machine, farm level, model bridge, 
model roof truss, hotbed frame, corn harvesting machine, corn 
shocking machine, etc. 

Course IV is in advanced furniture projects, as bookcase, 
library tabic, piano bench, plate rack, buffet, footstool, pedes- 
tal, hall tree etc. ; scientific apparatus for showing laws of 
physics, etc. 

Course \. Concrete work for the farm and home is done 
by making molds for drainage tile, concrete fence posts, hitch- 
ing posts, hog feeding troughs, watering troughs, concrete 
steps, lawn benches, flower pots, etc. 

Course VI. Farm Mechanics. The construction of pieces 
for wagon repairs in wood and iron, fitting wagon wheel tires, 
making gate hooks, gate hinges, sharpening plows, horseshoe- 
ing, and other work in forge and metal work can be done i. 
the county high school with small equipment. 

OUTFIT OF TOOLS SUITABLE FOR MANUAL TRAINING IN 
COUNTY HIGH SCHOOLS 

The following tools are divided into two sets, one set for the 
pupil, which is reduced to the minimum of tools required, and the 
other set for general use which is more complete and consists of 
tools used only occasionally by the pupil, designated as "Set of 
Tools for Shop." The outfit suggested is not intended to be fol- 
lowed in every csae, as many schools are able to purchase larger 
and more varied sets for both the pupil and the shop, but it is 
prepared to give assistance to those fitting out their manual train- 
ing departments. 

The set for the shop will suit all cases, but the pupil's set can be 
varied somewhat with the conditions of the periods and the finances 
of the department; for instance, one set may be divided among two 
or three pupils, as it is not likely that each pupil will need the 
same tool at the same time, but where possible, it is better to have 
more tools. 



MANUAL TRAINING 139 

SET OF TOOLS FOR THE SHOP 

14-in. Iron fore-plane — 2-in. bit $1.95 

7-in. Iron block plane — knuckle joint 35 

Ratchet brace, 8-in. sweep 1.30 

Screwdriver bit 18 

Expansion bit, 1-in. to 3-in .70 

Set of bits, }4-in., 5/16-in., %-in., %-in., %-in., %-in., 1-in 55 

Set of chisels : V4 -in 30 

%-in 32 

%-in 34 

%-in 38 

1-in 42 

1 Set of 7 gimlets 25 

1 Countersink 15 

1 Drawing Knife, 1%-in. plain handle 80 

1 24-in. rip saw, No. 6 1.70 

1 12-in. back saw 90 

1 Framing square r 89 

1 8-in. bevel 21 

1 Key hole saw _ _ 23 

1 6-in. Screwdriver 15 

1 Oil stone 50 

1 Pr. 8-in. compass .19 

1 Oil can 10 



$12.86 
SET OF TOOLS FOR THE PUPIL 

9-in. Iron smooth-plane, 2-in. bit $1.30 

Vz-in. Chisel _ _ 34 

Marking gauge 16 

20-in. Hand saw, No. 10 1.00 

12-oz. Hammer 41 

Tri-square, 8-in 34 

Mallet 15 

$4.30 
TOOLS FURNISHED BY PUPIL 

Pocket knife $0.25 

Two-foot rule 10 

$0.35 



HOME ECONOMICS 



DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

lyfe^l 1 1 E course in domestic science seeks to stimulate an inter- 
|vl/| e->t in the home, giving to those who take it a higher 
I ideal of home life, a respect for manual work, and rais- 
ing home-making to the dignity of a profession, which 
it is, just as truly as is law or medicine. The subject is a broad 
one and should be handled in such a way as to stimulate 
thought. The following points should be stressed in the course : 

1. The food principles and their function in the body. 

2. The study of foodstuffs — their source, composition, food 
value, digestibility, and preparation. The effect of cooking 
processes on the substances in foods is the basis of principles 
underlying the cooking of foods. 

'■'>. The systems of digestion, elimination, and respiration 
should be thoroughly studied, as well as the processes of ab- 
sorption and assimilation, aiming to show how foods are util- 
ized and in what condition they should be supplied to nourish 
and build up the tissues. 

I. Economy. Household expenses should be systematized. 
Thoughtful spending is encouraged when cost and value re- 
ceived are compared. Teach the girls how to make the simple, 
inexpensive foods attractive and nourishing and how to utilize 
leftovers. 

5. Sanitation and hygiene, both personal and household. Al- 
though vou may not be able to make the school kitchen a model 
as to convenient equipment and furnishings, it can be made a 
model in neatness and cleanliness. There is enough work inci- 
dental to the cooking to give considerable practice in actual 
housekeeping. Emphasis should be laid on having it done cor- 
rectly and on having each class leave the room in perfect con- 
dition. The pupils should care for the equipment as much as 
possible and should feel a responsibility and pride in keeping 
everything clean and in order. Divide the work so that each 
has a definite share and each duty is taken in turn by the 
members of the class. 



HOME ECONOMICS 141 



The lessons in the textbook are mapped out and planned 
with enough detail to need no further elaboration in this man- 
ual. They are so arranged as to give a foundation of facts 
and principles that may be applied to succeeding lessons and 
to work outside of school. The teacher may supplement the 
subject matter of the text by additional knowledge given as 
lectures or as reference readings. Additional recipes from 
other sources than the text may also be used. 

It is suggested that the two periods a week given to the work 
l;e consecutive and be devoted to a double period lesson; the 
first part of the time to be given to theory and direction, the 
latter part — not less than 60 minutes — to be given to practice. 

Let every fourth leson be a recitation or lecture. Little en- 
tertainments, luncheons, etc., given by the domestic science 
pupils, may serve as a means of enlisting the interest and 
cooperation of patrons and friends and also furnish funds to 
purchase needed equipment or helpful books. It also provides 
a way for the pupil to apply her newly gained knowledge to 
practical use. 

REFERENCE BOOKS 

A bibliography for student and teacher follows. All books re- 
lating to Domestic Science may be obtained from Whitcomb and 
Barrows, Huntington Chambers, Boston, who conduct a clearing 
house for domestic science literature. 

1. Farmers' Bulletins, U. S . Dept. of Agriculture, Washington, 
D. C. These may be obtained free. Send for a catalog. 

2. The Bureau of Chemistry, Department of Publications and 
other branches of the Department of Agriculture issue bulle- 
tins ranging in price from five cents to fifty cents. Send for 
catalog. 

3. Bailey — Domestic Science, Principles and Application, Webb 
Publishing Co., St. Paul, Minn. 

4. Kinne & Cooley — Foods and Household Management. 

5. Williams & Fisher — Principles of the Theory and Practice of 
Cookery. 

6. Library of Home Economics, twelve volumes, published by 
Maurice Le Bosquet. American School of Home Economics, 
Chicago, 111. 



142 COUNTY HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL 



7. Wiley — Foods and their Adulteration. Blakiston, Philadel- 
phia, Pa. 

8. Snyder — Human Foods, Macmillan. 

9. Hutchinson — Foods and the Principles of Dietetics. 

10. Harrington — Practical Hygiene. 

11. Conn — Bacteria, Yeasts and Molds. 

12. Prudden — Story of the Bacteria. 

13. Prudden — Dust and Its Dangers. 

14. Prudden — Drinking Water and Ice Supplies. 

15. Carpenter — How the World is Fed. 

16. Farmer — Boston Cooking School Cook Book. 

17. Farmer — A New Book of Cookery. 

18. Farmer — Diet for the Sick and Convalescent. 

19. Richards — Sanitation in Daily Life. 

20. Richards— Cost of Food. 

21. Sherman — Chemistry of Food and Nutrition. 

22. Weeks-Shaw — Text Book of Nursing. 

23. Magazine — Journal of Home Economics. Benj. S. Andrews, 
Columbia University, New York. 

24. Magazine — Good Housekeeping, Springfield, Mass. 

25. Dr. Langworthy's Food Charts (splendid), U. S .Dept. of Ag- 
riculture, Dept. of Publications, Washington, D. C. Seventeen 
charts for $1.00. 

EQUIPMENT FOR DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

A domestic science equipment, to lie adequate, must include 
all the necessary apparatus for the application of principles and 
actual cooking in the class room. If the equipment is too 
meager, the work is restricted and the girls do not learn the 
value of good utensils; if too elaborate, ingenuity is not devel- 
oped and girls get extravagant ideas that are not practical or 
possible in the average home. . 

In selecting equipment, its wearing qualities and working 
possibilities must he considered. Ofter a simple, inexpensive tool 
will serve the purpose and last as long as a more expensive one. 
Then, again, it is better economy to pay more for an article 
known to be the best. Experience in the class room is the best 
way to determine the best kinds of equipment to buy, and only 
those of experience ought to undertake the responsibility. 



HOME ECONOMICS 143 



Many complete lists of equipment are published, but most of 
them include unnecessary articles that may easily be omitted. 

The cost of equipping' a school depends on the number of 
students to be provided for, the kind and amount of equipment 
and the method of work. 

The kind of equipment depends on the facilities at hand, 
such as water supply, the available fuel, the size and shape of 
the room, etc. 

The number to be equipped for depends on the size of the 
school classes and the kind of equipment used. Larger classes 
can be accommodated when gas is used than when a wood or 
coal range is used. Elementary work can be done in large 
classes more successfully than advanced work. The ideal class 
is 10 or 12, but classes as large as 24 are practicable with ade- 
quate equipment and room. Classes larger than 24 are to be 
avoided. The smaller the number equipped for, the less the 
cost of equipment and the more efficient the work. More equip- 
ment can always be added if necessity arises. 

Work is conducted by the group method (girls working in 
groups of from two to six), or the individual method, each 
working alone. In the group method larger and fewer utensils 
are needed. In the individual method smaller utensils are used 
and they are duplicated for each girl. A combination of both 
methods, or where girls work in. pairs, permits the use of 
larger proportions of recipes than the individual method and at 
the same time gives each one an equal responsibility in the 
work. An equipment that permits both methods to be used 
at times is much the best. 

Tables may be separate group tables for four pupils, or, one 
or move long continuous tables with places for working on 
either side, or, thev may be arranged in the form of a hollow 
oblong or square. The hollow square is best adapted to 
younger pupils, is better for large classes and for demonstration 
work, as all pupils face the teacher. This type is most gen- 
erally used. 

Tables may be built with a deep drawer (8 or 10 inches) and 
a breadboard to slide in and out, or in addition they may have 
a locker or cupboard below the drawer. The latter is more 
expensive, but is preferable as it provides room to keep all 
utensils out of dust. Tables may be built of hardwood, finely 
polished, or of softwood enameled white. Tf lockers are built 



144 COUNTY HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL 

they should not extend to the floor. An open space of four 
to six inches beneath should be allowed for cleaning and for 
pupils' toes. The top of the table should be thirty to thirty-two 
inches from the floor and a working space at least thirty inches 
square should be allowed for each girl. The tops of the tables 
may be of various materials, as follows : 

1. Hardwood — Selected white maple with a fine finish gives 
good service and teaches girls to care for tables like those usual- 
ly found at home. On the other hand they consume much val- 
uable time for scrubbing. 

.'. Soft wood — Not desirable, unsanitary, hard to keep clean. 

:!. Zinc — A satisfactory and inexpensive covering if applied 
smoothly. Fairly easy to care for. 

4. White enamel iron tops do not break or warp and are 
attractive, sanitary, easily cleaned, but are more expensive. 

5. Cement fiber tops give excellent service, look well, are 
sanitary and easily cleaned. 

6. Opalescent glass — ideal from the standpoint of sanitation, 
appearance, and convenience, but they crack easily from heat 
and utensils falling upon them. 

7. Tile — Cracks appear in cement after service. 

8. Alberene — Patent stone, looks like marble, good. 

;». ( Hlcloth — Not desirable, many disadvantages, quickly be- 
comes unsanitary and unsightly. 

Individual stoves are used, a burner for each girl ; they may 
be gas, oil or alcohol. If gas is used the attachments should 
be permanent and there should be as little piping on top of the 
table as possible. Avoid rubber tubing. Two-burner gas plates 
are preferable to one burner, as they occupy less space and 
require less piping. The legs should be removed and the 
stoves set on brackets so as to be off of the table. If girls 
work on both sides of table the stoves for both sides may be 
supported by the same set of tee brackets and connected by 
same pipe. They should be near enough to edge of table to 
be reached conveniently by pupils. The piping and brackets 
should be put in place before the tops are put on tables. If 
oil stoves are used two, three, or four burner stoves should be 
stationed at convenient places in the room. Provide a burner 
for each girl and two two-burner ovens for the use of all. If 
alcohol stoves are used, onlv denatured alcohol should be 



HOMtt ECONOMICS 145 



burned ; wood alcohol burns to formaldehyde and water ; for- 
maldehyde paralyzes the muscles of eye and throat. 

floors are best covered with linoleum, but this is expensive. 
A good hardwood floor, oiled and kept in good condition is 
satisfactory and practical. Tiled floors are sanitary, easily 
cared for, but are hard to stand on. They are expensive but 
last forever. 

Walls should be washable, they are best tiled or made of 
glazed brick, but these are expensive. Hard plaster with a 
flat paint finish gives good results and costs much less. Kitchens 
are attractive if tinted in blue and white (walls blue, wood- 
work and tables white) and there is no difference in the cost. 

Windows should be screened. 

The following list of equipment is necessary for the best 
results in following" the two year course as given in the text- 
book. 

1. Individual equipment (one for each pupil) multiply by 
number in class : 

Plate, cup, saucer, measuring cup %-pt., paring knife, case knife, 
fork, tablespoon, teaspoon, egg whisk, dishpan, crockery mixing 
bowl, 2-qt., saucepan with handle and cover, 1-qt., plain saucepan, 
1-pt., crockery ramekin or round bottomed porcelain bowl, ^-pt., 
double boiler, small bread board. Note: These may be built in ta- 
bles. Rolling pin. Note: Small ones are preferable. They may be 
made by boys in Manual Training Department or procured at five 
and ten-cent store. Holder (for lifting hot dishes, girls can 
make it). 

2. Equipment — (One for each two pupils) multiply by half 
the number in class. 

Wooden spoon, strainer, crockery soap dish (an oatmeal dish 
will do), small steel skillet, biscuit cutter, salt shaker, pepper 
shaker, bowl or pan (for scraps), 1-pt. 

3. General equipment — (Used by class in common). 

1 butcher knife, 1 can opener, 1 cork screw, 1 or 2 wire potato 
mashers, 2 lemon squeezers, 2 graters, 1 crank flour sifter, 1 Dover 
egg beater, 1 large teakettle, 1 frying kettle (iron or enamel), 1 
steamer to fit on frying kettle, 2 large pans of porcelain, 6-qt., 1 



146 COUNTY HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL 



coffee pot, 2-qt., 1 tea pot, 1-qt., 1 covered roasting pan, 12 small 
layer cake pans (may be used for biscuit also), 12 pie pans, 6-inch, 
rim, 12 four-hole muffin pans or 6 six-hole muffin pans, 3 loaf 
cake pans (round tube pans), 6 loaf bread pans 4x4x9. Note: 
Instead of standard size bread pans, individual pans 2x3x6 may 
be made by local tinner or hardware man and sold not to exceed 
10 cents 1 toaster (use broiling oven of gas range), 1 potato 
ricer, 1 Universal meat grinder, 1 apple corer, 1 ice pick, 1 knife 
sharpener, 1 two-quart porcelain pitcher, 1 six-quart porcelain 
pitcher, 1 25-lb. flour box, 1 sugar box, 1 large vessel, stock pot 
or bucket, for heating water, 4 vegetable brushes, 1 ice cream 
freezer, 3 or 4-qt., 1 garbage bucket, 1 broom, 1 mop, 1 scrubbing 
brush, 1 pair scissors, 1 scales, 1 clock, jars, canisters or buckets 
with lids, for holding supplies. 

4. Kitchen Furnishings. 

One gas or coal range or 1 two-hole kerosene stove with oven. 
Gas plates or kerosene stoves, one burner for each girl. Two-hole 
plates or stoves are best, as they take up less room. 

Laboratory tables to supply each girl with at least 30 inches of 
working space and a drawer or locker for individual equipment. 

Stools or seats built in tables, one for each girl. 1 supply table, 
1 cupboard (large eonugh to hold general equipment and supplies 
or 1 pantry, with enclosed shelves, 1 refrigerator, 1 sink, with 
drain board, soap dish and sink strainer, 1 laundry bag, 6 towel 
racks or 1 clothes horse, 1 roller towel rack, 2 dozen dish cloths, 2 
dozen dish towels, V 2 dozen roller hand towels, dust cloths, cleaning 
cloths. Note: Girls may make towel cloths and holders. Boys may 
make towel racks. 

EQUIPMENT DEALERS 

[n many cases local dealers will be able to supply all neces- 
sary equipment, but for guidance where they are unable to do 
so, the names of firms of whom materials for domestic science 
may be obtained are appended: 

1. For models and plans of tables, stoves and domestic science 
furnishings, see bulletin Outline Lessons in Housekeeping, Office 
of Indian Affairs, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. 
2. Bangs Hardware Co., 96-100 Lake St., Chicago, 111.; Orr and 



HOME ECONOMICS 147 



Lockett, 71-73 Randolph St., Chicago, 111. Ask for list of Domestic 
Science Equipment. 3. E. H. Sheldon & Co., 320-328 N. May St., 
Chicago, 111. Tables, table tops, gas burners. 4. Specialists in al- 
cohol stoves: Manning & Bowman, Meriden, Conn. Walker & 
Company, Boston, Mass. Lewis & Conger, New York City. 5. 
Alberene Company, Chicago, New York, Boston. Patent table top, 
called alberene, looks like gray stone, cost $18.00. 6. Cement table 
top. Imperial Floor Co., 1108 Granite Bldg., Rochester, N. Y. 7. 
Montgomery Ward & Co., Chicago, 111., Kansas City, Mo. Ask for 
lists of Domestic Science equipment. 8. Carson, Pirie, Scott & Co., 
Chicago, 111. Send for price list dishes and enamel ware. 

PORTABLE COOKING EQUIPMENT 

Suggestions are given below for cheap equipment for a room 
where equipment must he portable. Tf further information is 
desired the reader is referred to an article by Mrs. Helen Kinne 
in Teachers' College Record, May 1909. This can he secured 
for 30 cents from Teachers' College, Columbia University, New 
York City. 

For Class of 12 

1 gasoline stove, 1 oven, 12 individual stoves, 3 table tops, 2 ft. 
x 12 ft., to be laid across tops of desks or across packing boxes, 12 
packing boxes with shelves, to hold individual equipment; 1 cup- 
board or packing box with shelf and door for supplies. 12 sauce 
pans with handle and cover. 12 double boilers, 12 mixing bowls, 2- 
qt., 12 measuring cups, %-pt., 12 round bottom porcelain bowls, V2- 
pt., 12 layer cake tins (use also for biscuits, etc.), 12 plates, 12 
cups and saucers, 12 teaspoons, 12 tablespoons, 12 knives, 12 forks, 
12 egg whisks, 12 paring knives, 6 strainers, 3 small frying pans, 
6 dish pans, 1 teakettle, 1 soup kettle, 4 muffin pans, 1 tube loaf 
cake pan, 6 covered jars or buckets (for supplies), 1 large sauce 
pan, 1 butcher knife, 1 biscuit cutter, 1 grater, 1 tea pot, 1 coffee 
pot, 1 can opener, 1 cork screw, 1 garbage bucket, 4 vegetable 
brushes, 1 scrub brush, towels, cloths, holders. 

DOMESTIC ART 

The pupil who takes a course in sewing should acquire skill 
and deftness in the use of the needle, and habits of neatness. 



148 COUNTY HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL 

accuracy and observation. A standard which will secure at all 
times their most painstaking efforts should be kept before the 
pupils. The aim should not be to make a large number of arti- 
cles, but to produce a high quality of work ; they should pro- 
ceed only as rapidly as is consistent with doing their best. If 
habits of working correctly are formed, skill will come with 
practice and rapidity with skill. 

There are two ways of teaching sewing, one of which, if used 
in the extreme, asks the pupil to spend many hours putting 
stitches into samples. This, if it can be made interesting may 
secure beautiful needlework, but not always the ability to ap- 
ply the knowledge thus gained to articles of use. The other 
method when used in the extreme, rushes pupils into making 
more or less difficult, complicated articles before sufficient skill 
is acquired. This lowers the standards of desirable work. The 
happy medium is to select simple articles which are useful and 
interesting to the girls. Each new stitch or exercise needed in 
making these is carefully practiced on a small piece of cloth 
before being used on the article or garment. 

The time given to sewing is two periods a week in the third 
year. The following course should be followed as nearly as 
possible. 

1 . (a) Hand-sewing : 

Stitches — Basting, running, backstitching, overcasting, hem- 
ming, overhanding or whipping. 

Seams — French felled, hemmed felled, plain, overhand. 

I [ems — Plain, damask, faced, extension. Flannel, square and 
mitered corners. 

Repairing — By patching— hemmed patch, overseamed patch, 
darned patched. By darning — on wool — stocking darn. 

Fastenings — Buttonholes, buttons, hook and eye. clasps, eye- 
lets, tape, loops. 

Simple Embroidery — Chain stitch, feather stitch, catch stitch, 
blanket stitch, hem stitch, satin stitch, outline stitch. 

The foregoing is to be worked out with as few samples as 
possible. Most of this work can be done upon garments or 
articles for household use. such as towels, pillow cases, bags, 
aprons, curtains, cushion covers and Christmas gifts. 
(h) Hand and machine sewing, cutting and fitting: 

Undergarments — set of four garments, or any combination 
garment. Long seams and hems on machine, finish by hand. 



HOME ECONOMICS 149 



Simple cotton dress — Machine work, except basting and 
gathering. Use tissue pattern. 

(2) Theory: 

Study of textiles, materials and implements used — Cotton, 
flax, thread, needles, pins, thimble, emery, scissors, buttons, 
hook and eye, machines. 

Adaptation of different materials for certain uses, selection 
of material as to wearing qualities, design and color ; washable 
and unwashable goods ; cost of goods for various purposes ; 
width, color, durability, amount needed ; cost of clothing ready 
made, made in home, out of home. 

Hygiene of clothing, especially underwear, clothing for win- 
ter and summer, regard for comfort and health. 

Good taste in dress — -Harmony of colors, moderation of 
style, suitability to occasion, suitability to age, economical dress- 
ing. 

Care of clothing so as to secure best service from it; how 
to change and make over clothing. 

As there has been no textbook on sewing adopted, the fol- 
lowing books will be found helpful to the teacher : 

Olive Hapgood — School Needlework. 
Kinne & Cooley — Shelter and Clothing. 
Mary J. Woolman — Sewing Course. 
Cooley — Domestic Art in Women's Education. 

Sewing, General Equipment 

1. Small room, or corner screened for fitting. 

2. A mirror. 

3. Machines — 1 for each three or four pupils. 

4. Tables — 9 sq. ft. for each pupil. 

5. Chairs. 

6. Lockers to hold work. 

7. Cupboard for supplies. 

Sewing — Individual Equipment 

Scissors, sewing bag or box, needles, thread, pins, tape measure, 
emery ball. 

Note: Some valuable ideas in this article on Home Economics 
were obtained from Course of Study, Public Schools, Columbus, 
Ohio, and Domestic Science, Principles and Applications. 



022 158 782 



3 : ! 



